IX 2013 Dilemmas of Contemporary Public Administration

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 WSGE | 1 Alcide De Gasperi University of Euroregional Economy in Józefów D edited by Wacław Brzęk, Sylwia Ćmiel, Katerina Novikova Józefów 2013

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факторами є економічні, соціально-інституційні та екологічні, а оцінкабуде визначатись на основі кваліметричного підходу. Проекти, що матимутьвисокі оцінки загалом та за соціальними факторами можна вважати такими,що відповідають цілям суспільства у розвитку потенціалу людських ресурсів.

K :criteria-based model, human potential, innovation, labour productivity, qualimetricapproach, social innovation.інновації, кваліметричний підхід, критеріальна модель, продуктивністьпраці, соціальні інновації, трудовий потенціал

I

Human resource and the efficient use of human potential is one of the key fac-tors of economic and social growth. Te given study constantly captures the atten-tion of the researchers and is one of the most complicated public administrationobjects. Improving the existing human potential use in the countries with transi-tion economies is particularly challenging. Tose countries have limited nancialpossibilities to respond to the global challenges. Tis leads to the aggravation ofsocial issues and public opposition to the implementation of the intended reforms.Modern Ukraine also demonstrates the above-mentioned trends, whereas the

state, in addition to the ambitious social and economic reforms, has got the inten-tion of EU integration. In this regard, social and economic indicators’ reportingframework as for human resource development and human potential use must bebased on the EU standards. Ten, the society faces the burning need to implementthe innovative type of economic development and interaction in society becausethe traditional regulatory mechanisms do not demonstrate the required effect incrisis conditions. Developed countries pay more and more attention to innovationin the development, taking into account the need of a balanced development of

capital and human resources. For instance, the report “Innovate America” pub-lished by the National Innovation Initiative, launched by the Committee on Com-petitiveness (2005: 7), which is an advisory committee to the president of USA,stated that the most important target from now will be “Innovation” and summa-rized the task of America as follows:

“For the past 25 years, we have optimized our organization for efficiency andquality. Over the next quarter century, we must optimizeour entire society (high-lighted by the author ) for innovation.”

Tus, modern innovation accents in human resource management graduallymove from purely technological to other types of innovation. Social innovationscurrently remain “somewhat unappreciated” among all other kinds, even though

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they are wide spread and demonstrate positive results in some European countries,especially in Great Britain.

Tis new type of innovation hasn’t got any official denition yet but its deni-tion mostly refers to new strategies, concepts, ideas and organizations that meetsocial needs of all kinds – and this is the eld where the preconditions for humanpotential underuse appear.

Studying advanced international experience and the possibility of social inno- vations’ implementation which can extend and strengthen civil society is growinginto an important scientic and applied task.

T F ’ I ADespite all the advantages of the new innovation forms which are cited as or-

ganisational innovation within the Community Innovation Survey (CIS), they arepoorly used in Ukraine, much less then other novelties. It’s worth noting that in2010, Ukraine conducted the rst-ever coordinated survey of innovation activi-ties. Tis was the rst standardized survey of its kind in the history of Ukrainianscience and technology measurement – the rst being the international surveybased on the international manual. However, the official report presented the sur- vey results very briey and, thus, caused a necessity to address the State StatisticsCommittee for the detailed data.

So, both in 2008 and in 2010 the innovation activity in Ukraine has somewhatincreased, but even such general indicator of innovativeness as the share of inno- vative rms remained very low (≤ 21%). Purchases of machinery, equipment andso ware dominated among the innovation expenditures (74.7% of all innovativerms with technological innovations). Only 27.5% of the enterprises organizedtraining for innovation activity. In 2010 the share of intramural R&D in the totalinnovation expenditures was merely 10.1%. Te rest of the expenditures includ-ed different extramural innovation expenditures: extramural R&D, purchases ofother external knowledge, machinery and equipment, and other (State StatisticsCommittee of Ukraine, 2011?: 3-4). Terefore, the results of the research allowus to draw a conclusion that the development of intramural innovation capacityremains insufficient, while the innovative activity of the rms mostly concentrateson the purchases of extramural innovation and the intellectual potential develop-ment of the states exporting equipment and technology. Ukrainian business uses very little innovations that could serve as a basis for the constant improvement ofthe human capital, those that could create a safe labour environment, for example,through modern forms of employment management or knowledge developmentand exchange. Such innovations would include organizational ones which are usedonly by 10.2% of enterprises in the Ukrainian economy (State Statistics Committee

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of Ukraine, 2011: 2).It is obviously very difficult to gure out which organizational innovation is

dealing with human resource development and the effective use of human po-tential. It’s complicated as they focus on new work and new forms of cooperation(business models), not only those in the internal business environment. Never-theless, taking into account the modern imperatives of business development, thetrend of business engaging in public lifein developed countries, and solving socialissues of the regions by any means – either through remote assistance or activecooperation – the study of the given innovation is important. Te term “socialinnovation” includes all of those elds.

Given the novelty of this social and economic trend, anyone doing applies itsown denition of Social Innovation. However, those countries which have a richhistory of social innovation deal with the most frequently used concepts:socialinnovation refers to new strategies, concepts, ideas and organizations that meetsocial needs of all kinds – from working conditions and education to communitydevelopment and health – that extend and strengthen civil society. (Social Enter-prise Dictionary).Another source directly states that “… there are no agreed inter-national denitions”, however it also very aptly describes the brief concept of socialinnovation as follows: “Social innovation can be broadly dened as new answersto social problems.”(Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research,2011: 45).In Canada, where social innovation is an emerging eld of inquiry, so-

cial innovation is described as “transforming deeply rooted social problems byintroducing new ideas, practices, policies, relationships and resources in the di-rection of greater resilience” (Canadian Policy Research Networks Inc., 2009: 45).Te report also indicates that the eld of study, as any new idea, may have somescientic opposition and rejection. Recognizing the signicant achievements ofthe other countries, especially those of the United Kingdom which is consideredto be the birthplace of the research on the social return on investment (SROI), Ca-nadian analysts in their report acknowledge that this is a good way “to understand

the economic value of social benets”. (Canadian Policy Research Networks Inc.,2009: 31).As one can see, the concept of social innovation is very new and so far there

is no official website that would provide accurate statistics of its use. Terefore, it’s very hard to identify the impact of social innovation compared with others on thebasis of the existing statistical database. Basing on the existing classication of in-novation, one can compare the effectiveness of social innovation with other forms viewing it as a part of organizational innovation with a particular error.

In order to compare the effectiveness of the inuence of different innovationtypes on the manufacturing output, the author analysed the correlation ratio of various innovation factors and labour productivity (case study of Ukraine). Or-

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ganizational and technological innovation has got the greatest value in the eldof human resource formation and use– in case it appeared as a result of the ownintellectual potential development and the use of the latest technological advanc-es is accompanied by the improvement of working and employment conditions.Terefore, the calculation takes into account the total innovation activities as well

as organizational and technological innovation. Te estimate doesn’t include theimpact of marketing innovation, since it o en includes minor sales improvements.In addition, it is most likely to reallocate the market shares between the operatingmarket manufacturers and resellers. On the contrary, it is weakly associated withthe factors of productivity and organizational level of manufacturing facilities.

Table 1. Innovations as the Factor Affecting Labour Productivity in the Oblastsof Ukraine in 2008 – 2010

Oblast (Region)Labour Pro-

ductivity ,UAH/

man-hours

Share ofInnovativeFirms, %

Share of Inno- vative Firmswith echno-logicalInno- vation, %

Share of Innova-tive FirmswithOrganizationalInnovation, %

Autonomous Republic ofCrimea 21,44 0,15 0,55 0,13

Cherkasy Oblast 24,17 0,21 0,53 0,05Chernihiv Oblast 21,99 0,16 0,63 0,06

Chernivtsi Oblast 16,34 0,22 0,67 0,08Dnipropetrovsk Oblast 44,38 0,23 0,21 0,23Donetsk Oblast 39,48 0,22 0,55 0,13Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast 25,02 0,11 1,00 0,00Kharkiv Oblast 30,87 0,23 0,68 0,06Kherson Oblast 19,31 0,15 0,49 0,12Khmelnytskyi Oblast 19,35 0,19 0,55 0,16Kyiv Oblast 36,57 0,22 0,44 0,09Kirovohrad Oblast 22,19 0,17 0,60 0,10Luhansk Oblast 27,91 0,23 0,54 0,16Lviv Oblast 24,09 0,18 0,57 0,09Mykolaiv Oblast 27,26 0,24 0,63 0,09Odessa Oblast 31,41 0,23 0,52 0,12Poltava Oblast 41,60 0,18 0,51 0,10Rivne Oblast 21,61 0,26 0,51 0,15Sumy Oblast 22,83 0,23 0,47 0,14

ernopil Oblast 19,04 0,22 0,55 0,10

Vinnytsia Oblast 21,49 0,27 0,53 0,12Volyn Oblast 20,84 0,28 0,41 0,14

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Oblast (Region)Labour Pro-

ductivity ,UAH/

man-hours

Share ofInnovativeFirms, %

Share of Inno- vative Firmswith echno-logicalInno- vation, %

Share of Innova-tive FirmswithOrganizationalInnovation, %

Zakarpattia Oblast 18,20 0,26 0,45 0,12Zaporizhia Oblast 31,56 0,10 0,29 0,20Zhytomyr Oblast 21,20 0,15 0,50 0,04Ukraine 32,61 0,21 0,51 0,12Correlation Coefficient-between the Factor and

Labour Productivity -0,0268 -0,3212 0,2875

Te above-mentioned calculations prove that the impact of innovation factorson social production output is insufficient and weak in the regional context. So farthe correlation coefficient between the productivity and the share of innovativerms has a value close to zero. Te inverse correlation between the productivityand technological innovation dissemination is somewhat illogical and may signifythe ineffectiveness of the used modernization strategies.

However, in 2010 only organizational innovation demonstrated positive im-pact: not very high but still positive. Te low value of the correlation coefficientbetween the factor and productivity means there is a weak link but only this factorcontributes to the manufacturing growth and therefore should be further engagedand developed.

In this case, the calculation of quantitative factors certainly includes some in-accuracies due to the possible inuence of subjective factors: the innovation sur- vey is voluntary, takes the form of poll, and does not belong to statistical reports,and therefore can not be expected to be completely objective. Furthermore, nowa-days there is no effective mechanism to monitor the reliability of the report. Still, itis the most reliable data on the innovation intensity and distribution which existsin Ukraine.

Hence, the author investigated the introduction of social innovation in manu-facturing enterprises in one of Ukrainian Oblasts (Rivne Oblast).

T F S I I (R S R )Te given research uses samples as a way to gather data. Te frame used for

sampling purposes is the innovation survey of manufacturing enterprises con-ducted by the by the State Statistics Committee of Ukraine in the context of the

Strategy of the Innovation Development of Ukraine elaboration.Te total sample size is 100 enterprises of Rivne Oblast. Own opinion survey

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was conducted during January – February, 2013.At the end of February, we re-ceived responses from 63 respondents. Te classication of social entrepreneur-ship as one of the forms of social innovation common in the UK became the basisof the survey.

Apart from that, the author used Ukrainian and world experience in the eldof social innovation used by different organizations, in particular ERS E group,Ukrainian Social Investment Fund, other businesses and organizations, to ensurehuman resource development.

Te survey showed that the level of activity in the eld of social innovation de- velopment is very low. Consequently, the owner’s perception of his/her own busi-ness as a social one is one of the key directions of social innovation that certify thewillingness of companies to form competitive human capital.

Tere is no common understanding of this term as it is new for economicresearch. Social enterprises include both non-prot organizations and for-protcompanies that apply commercial strategies to maximize improvements in hu-man and environmental well-being, rather than maximising prots for externalshareholders. Within the case study of Rivne Oblast one can see that there only afew commercial enterprises which consider themselves to be social ones: only onethird of the respondents gave a clear affirmative reply (g. 1).

yes33%

no opinion38%

no29%

Figure 1 . Distribution of Respondents for the Perception

of Being Social EnterprisesTe greatest share of the respondents who answered “yes” was in the group

Employers’ and Employees’

Representatives

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of large enterprises. Te fact that many respondents stated they have “no opin-ion” certies there are certain signs of “socialization” in the employer – employeerelations. However, according to the existing distribution only a few commercialenterprises have social objectives, in particular human development. Most of themuse the traditional approach in HR management when the commitment to social

objectives is motivated by the perception that such commitment will ultimatelymake the enterprise more nancially valuable.One of the modern methods to strengthen the competitiveness of enter-

prises is the development of the corporate social investment – primarily instaff development programmes. In this aspect the Investors in People stan-dard – a business improvement tool borrowed from the UK – became wide-ly spread across the globe. oday, Investors in People International operatesin more than 70 countries across the globe, and delivers services in more than

20 languages (Ukrainian National Committee International Chamber of Com-merce). Tis standard is designed to advance an organisation’s performancethrough its employees. Te use of the tool helps companies to achieve the resultsthey want by focusing on their business objectives and to maintain continuousimprovement.

Organisations pursuing the Standard then prepare their work against the spe-cic criteria with support from a recognised Investors in People Adviser and guid-ance from detailed evidence requirements. External assessment is subsequently

carried out to ensure the organisation has met these principles and underpinningcriteria. As long as the criteria are adhered to, there is complete exibility in howthe organisation seeks to improve its staff development. Te principles break-down into 10 indicators; each indicator is subdivided into a number of evidencerequirements. Tese detail the criteria organisations are required to meet in orderto achieve the Standard. Tus, the Investors in People standard covers a variety ofbusiness areas including not only recognition and reward but also people man-agement strategy, involvement and empowerment, performance measurement etc.

(Proving and Improving: a Quality and Impact oolkit for Charities, VoluntaryOrganisations and Social Enterprise).In order to conrm the effectiveness of the noted social innovation, one may

look at the results of the study which was designed to explore the impact of achiev-ing accreditation for the Investors in People Standard on business performance.Te sample consisted of a total of 1,600 companies, equally divided between rec-ognised public sector organisations, recognised SMEs (5-249 employees), rec-ognised large employers (250+ employees) and non-recognised companies. Keyndings conrmed that “organisational changes made by Investors in Peoplerecognised employers are twice as protable as changes made by other compa-nies”(Ukrainian National Committee International Chamber of Commerce).

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Tere were no studies which would explore the readiness of Ukrainian compa-nies for achieving accreditation for the Investors in People Standard. Tat is whythis possibility was analyzed in the survey of manufacturing enterprises of RivneOblast. According to the self-assessment (g. 2) none of the companies fully meetsthe required criteria and, unfortunately, can not apply to achieve accreditation for

the Investors in People Standard.

Figure 2 . Corresponcence with Investors in People Standard Criteria

As in case of the perception of the idea of social entrepreneurship large enter-prises appeared to be the most active ones. Medium enterprises are more inert: onthe one hand, this is a result of lower mobility when compared with small busi-nesses and, on the other hand, smaller nancial possibilities when compared withlarge enterprises. However, a common conclusion regarding all of the enterpriseslies in the fact that today there is no effective partnership between business ownersand the staff of their enterprises. In particular, we believe that the assessment ofpeople’s needs is the key point which would help to strengthen the motivation and,consequently, to improve the overall performance of the enterprise. As one can seefrom the gure, this evidence requirement is provided for less than 50%. Tis is thecase, even despite the fact that the relevant poll does not require the expenditure

of large sums of money, and together with the adequate motivation system it couldbecome an important factor to strengthen the competitiveness of enterprises.Tere also some other issues, i.e. the functions performed do not fully corre-

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spond to people’s professional education, the people’s positive contribution is not valued enough, insufficient adaptation of newcomers (absolutely recognized bythe employers).One of the most negative results is the lack of effective feedback– the average level of this indicator doesn’t reach even 65%.Tus, one can assumethat the executives are not interested in the information regarding the people’s

views on how they are managed. Moreover, they have probably lost a great amountof innovation in the ideas of employees as people are not encouraged to contributeideas. As a consequence, the low self-assessment of the social responsibility of theenterprises is the logical reection of the existing issues. Tis, particularly, includesa social responsibility of the employers: the highest rate is less than 80% and formedium-sized enterprises it is less than 20%.

Learning and development strategy also lacks attention as it is shown infurther responses concerning the application of certain organizational forms of

knowledge transfer both traditional and innovative for Ukraine: through the cor-porate e-learning portal, accumulation and development of business ideas, and thesupport of innovative research projects (Figure 3).

12,70%

1,59%

20,63%

12,70%

7,94%

0,00%

5,00%

10,00%

15,00%

20,00%

25,00%

c o n t e s t s o f

e m p l o y e e

b u s i n e s s

i d e a s

o w n

t r a i n i n g

c e n t r e

c o a c h i n g

c o r p o r a t e e -

l e a r n i n g p o r t a l

e m p l o y e e s '

R & D s u p p o r t

Figure 3 . Main ypes of Human Development and Knowledge ransfer

So, manufacturing enterprises of Rivne Oblast prefer traditional methods of

knowledge management, in particular through coaching and mentoring. Howev-er, even this system of knowledge transfer and re-use is typical only for about 21%of respondents. Own training centres are not very common as their creation and

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support are rather costly; in the long run this method is used only by large en-terprises. Due to the fact it is not wide-spread in the region in general, small andmedium-sized enterprises do not use this system at all.

At the same time, there is no tangible evidence to support the methods pro-moting creativity and innovation, for instance the contests supporting employeescientic research. Whereas the provision of nancial assistance to own R&D ismore typical for large enterprises (16.67% of the total), the organisation of thecontests of employee business ideas – for large and small enterprises (16.67% and14.63%, respectively).

Innovative methods of knowledge transfer, for example, providing access tothe corporate information network data, is much less common: an average is about13%. Tis indicator gives an opportunity to conclude that this form of humandevelopment and knowledge transfer is insufficient and hinders developing otherinnovation types and effective organizational interaction due to poor communi-cations.

Knowledge is one of the most modern strategic objectives for the innovationstrategies to accelerate the development. However, if there issues with the used ofinnovative approaches in this important eld, it is clear that the use of other socialinnovation which may not provide very fast competitive advantages is even worse.One can easily see this trend in the further responses of the respondents. Sue tothe low probability that the respondents would indicate “yes” to the questions re-garding the use of truly innovative measures, entrepreneurs were to select out ofan unlimited number of variants on the social benets traditionally included in toan employee benets package which also measure the effectiveness of corporatesocial responsibility.

It is known that the term corporate social responsibility (CSR) relates to theethical and legal behaviour by organisations in the workplace and the wider com-munity. So, one can state that businesses in the Oblast tend to spend their CSRbudgets on the sponsorship of contests of business projects(6.35% of the totalnumber of enterprises).Much less organisations are choosing CSR projects sup-porting health care (4.76%), sports (3.17%), and cultural or arts-based activities(1.59%). Te relatively high level of CSR programmes supporting environmentalcauses (an average of 27%) certies that organizations see them as a way to meetsocial and community obligations. Te level of the programmes use is particular-ly high for large enterprises (66.67% of their total number). However, the givenresponses do not mean that the organizations managed to counter the negativeimpacts they might be having on the environment or on people’s lives completely.

Most of the social activities of enterprises are focused on their own staff. Nev-ertheless, there are not enough projects that could serve as a basis for innovationdevelopment. Organizations prefer to sponsor the projects that require small in-

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vestments (cultural and entertainment activities, sports) or those partly motivatedby health regulations. Te vast majority of the noted activities are obtained by thehigh participation of large enterprises in employees’ health benets programmes(approximately 50%).

Te use of the new employment types is also very low. Only 11.11% of enter-prises give an opportunity of remote jobs, in 19.05% of the cases the employeeshave the options of exible work arrangements, for example ex-time. Small enter-prises provide more favourable conditions as for exible working hours (21.95%),large enterprises provide more options of remote employment or telecommuting(16.67%). Of course, in some rare cases the facts when the administration has cre-ated specic working arrangements for their staff may have inuenced the indices.Te average number of companies that provide such opportunities, even for justa few employees, is very low. Tis proves slow acceptance of innovations in HR

management. Certainly, one could predict the lack of awareness of the benets ofsocial innovations a long time ago. In particular, we previously gured out that themajority of enterprises do not have any needs assessment survey sand lack feed-back (g. 2). Tus, not knowing and not showing interest in the needs of entrepre-neurs not looking for effective staff incentives and provoke low return estimatedin employment. Much of the workplace environment doesn’t encourage employeemotivation as there is no management commitment: genuine interest and caring,employee-oriented policies and procedures, and attention from both senior man-

agers and line managers. As a result employee motivation is extremely low.

I G S C S I U : P O

Te survey results show that enterprises in Ukraine haven’t got rm internalmotives or positive experience of using innovation in human development. Teyalso do not tend to participate in regional or national development programmes.Nevertheless, businesses, as well as communities, regions and states, could getthe full potential benet of social innovation by participating in the given pro-grammes. It could help to solve a wide range of problems that existing structuresand policies have found it impossible to crack– such as climate change, the worldwide epidemic of chronic disease, and widening inequality etc. Over time the busi-nesses will also realize that integrating the values of social innovation into theoverall business strategy drives economic benets while improving social and en- vironmental conditions.

For today, the given research sheds light on the inconsistency and uncertainty

in the state innovation development strategy, not only in the eld of social innova-tion but in the other forms of innovation as well. Tere are many obstacles at thestage of organizational and regulatory process of innovation transfer in human re-

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source management. For instance, nowadays in Ukraine there is a list of high-pri-ority innovative projects, approved by the Cabinet of Ministers in 2010. Tey areconsidered to be national projects but there is no evidence why they should havea high priority. Tere is no single policy to stimulate innovation and there is nostate institution which would instruct the mechanisms of innovation in the public

sector, capitalize on good practices, accompany the organizational and manage-rial charges and elaborate means to measure the performance. Te Ministry ofEducation and Science of Ukraine is responsible for the basic functions regardinginnovation.

Several other executive state authorities(e.g. the State Agency of Ukraine forInvestment and Development, State Innovation Financial-Credit Institution)andregional authorities, in particular Department s of Economics of Regional StateAdministrations elaborate innovation development projects and programmes tak-

ing into account the issues and priorities of regional development but without anintegrated state policy in this sphere.Considering the issues that may relate to a failure in innovation or innovation

development in Ukraine, it is obvious that there is a need to improve the state ofaffairs. It is especially important in the eld of government support and facilitationof the dissemination of innovation as we have mentioned above that it drives eco-nomic benets while improving social and environmental conditions. Te interac-tion between the stakeholders in human development requests special attention.

It is clear that in case there is a national strategy or programme for innovativedevelopment key projects will receive state nancial assistance (usually in the formof grants).However, unlike the current trend of direct nancial ows between gov-ernment and businesses when the project results are quite poor and the projectimplementation is delayed in time, the pattern of government support should bechanged. Of course, there should be some nancial subsidies to favoured R&Dcentres at least to popularize this activity and to form sustainable business motivesto continue innovative activities. Nonetheless, government incentives should not

include only direct nancial ows. In addition to that, the project selection is alsoa weak element in the system of government support for innovation.oday it is mainly experts who select projects without any particular list of

criteria. Tis can become a constraint even at the stage of application submission.It is always best to have a good plan from the inception, with a list of criteria to beconsidered and goals to be achieved published before the project selection in orderto ensure the transparency of the interactions between local authorities and civilsociety. In addition to that, such project selection criteria should be substantiated

both scientically and practically. Furthermore, must consider all key pieces ofselection criteria, not only protability of the project or social outputs.Given that Ukraine has got nancial security issues and weak so-

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cial dialogue which prevent human potential development and hin-der the implementation of the projects potentially perspective for em-ployment reasons, we would like to suggest the following scheme ofinteractions between authorities and business at the stage of project selection(g. 4).

Figure 4. Government Innovative Support Framework andImprovement of Regional Human Potential Use

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We offer using factor criteria-based model elaborated according to qualimetricapproach in order to provide effective project evaluation and selection.

otal expert evaluation of the project quality and relevance for the region iscomputed using the formula:

i j j f

m

i

n

jñiñi wwe EE ⋅

⋅= ∑ ∑= =1 1

where EE is the total expert evaluation, dened in the range from 0.0 to 100points; j, i denote ordinal number of the criteria and factors, respectively;n, m denote the quantity of criteria and factors in the model, respectively;

jñie denotes expert’s judgment of the criterion j in factori; it is based on the sub- jective assessment of a particular criterion compliance within the range from 1 to10 points, considering that 10 is the maximum score;

jñiw denotes weights for criterion j, it is dened in the range from 0.0 to 1.0; de-scribes the criterion’s priority within the factori;

i f w denotes weights for factori, it is dened in the range from 0.0 to 10.0; demon-strates to which extend the factor inuences the overall expert assessment.

Te model factors correspond to thesustainable development concept and

basing on the Venn diagram of sustainable development consists of three constit-uent parts:1) economic;2) social and institutional;3) environmental.

Tey are detailed into evaluation criteria in table 2.

Table 2. Evaluation Criteria for Innovative Projects aiming at Human ResourceDevelopment and Human Potential Use# Factors Criteria

1 Economic

New jobs’ creationUse of new technologies, renewal of xed capitalInvestment development possibilities at all stages of the ActionRegional transport infrastructure development during Action im-plementationInnovation infrastructure developmentAction facilitates regional development according to its prioritiesGoods and services are globally competitive

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# Factors Criteria

2 Social and In-stitutional

Action foresees the possibility of innovative employment (i.e. exiblework arrangements, remote jobs)Te salary of the staff in the Action’s feasibility study (or budget) isnot lower than the national averageTere is professional development of the staff Action uses intellectual potential of the local inhabitantsTere are employee health care programmesAction provides employment for socially isolated groupsAction foresees informational interaction with local population andprovides the ability to monitor, analyse, share and report informa-tion, in particular through periodic social responsibility reports

3 EnvironmentalAction is environmentally friendly and / or meets ecological stan-dardsAction foresees recycling and/or safe waste management

We suggest using expert evaluation as a way to determine the weight of eachindicator in the evaluation system during the multi-objective decision-making.

CTis study examines the estimation and management issues of the innovation

in human resource development and human potential use. Our ndings highlightthe critical roles of government support and incentive of innovation that would

relate positively to HR practices and human potential development. Te worldexperience denes this type of innovation as “social ones”. Our results indicatethat there are not that many positive examples of social innovations not only inUkraine but in the developed economies as well. Te lack of corresponding officialstatistical surveys conrms this fact. However, social innovation can solve manysocial issues while driving economic benets and eventually leading to better per-formance of the enterprises. Fortunately, there is no shortage of social innovationsin Europe which can practically substantiate the noted statement.

o conclude, Ukraine which is still under the transformation of economic andsocial relations is struggling for social innovation as it can ensure new forms ofsocial groups’ cooperation and increase their role in human potential problemsolving. Te state or the government always plays a primary role in new positiveexperience sharing. Tat’s why at the initial stage of public perception it is the gov-ernment that should support disseminating social innovations. Te viewpoints ofthis study highlight the crucial importance of the overall active support instead ofpassive actions and formal approval of the projects which may not relate to public

interests. In order to decide whether a project is viable and is worth approving onecan use project selection methods described in the given article.

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RCanadian Policy Research Networks Inc.(2009)Social Innovation in Canada: An

Update. CPRN Research Report. [Online] Available from:http://www.cprn.org/documents/51684_EN.pdf .[Accessed: 20th August 2013]

Council on Competitiveness.(2005)Innovate America. National Innovation Ini-tiative Summit and Report. [Online] Available from:http://www.compete.org/images/uploads/File/PDF%20Files/NII_Innovate_America.pdf . [Accessed:20th August 2013]

Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research.(2011) Social innova-tion in Australia. Australian Innovation System Report 2011.[Online]Availablefrom:http://www.innovation.gov.au/Innovation/Policy/AustralianInnovation-SystemReport/AISR2011/chapter-5-public-sector-and-social-innovation/so-cial-innovation-in-australia/index.html.[Accessed: 20th August 2013]

Proving and Improving: a Quality and Impact oolkit for Charities, VoluntaryOrganisations and Social Enterprise. Investors in People Standard. [Online]Available from:http://www.proveandimprove.org/tools/investorsinpeople.php. [Accessed: 20th August 2013]

Social Enterprise Dictionary. [Online] Available from:http://www.socialenter-prise.org.uk/about/about-social-enterprise/social-enterprise-dictionary . [Ac-cessed: 20th August 2013]

State Statistics Committee of Ukraine. (2011) Assessment of Innovation Activitiesin the Economy of Ukraine in 2008 – 2010. [Online] Available from:http://ukrstat.org/uk/druk/publicat/kat_u/publnauka_u.htm.[Accessed: 20th August2013]

Ukrainian National Committee International Chamber of Commerce. Officialweb-site. [Online] Available from:http://iccua.org/ru/content/investors-peo-ple-0. [Accessed: 20th August 2013]

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D Особенности распределения добавленной стоимости между

факторами производства

Natalia Samoliuk National University of Water Managementand Nature Resources Use

[email protected]

AВ статье осуществлен анализ развития теоретических концепций рас-

пределения вновь созданного продукта между основными факторами егопроизводства - «трудом» и «капиталом». Также рассмотрены особенностираспределения добавленной стоимости между участниками ее производ-ства, то есть между владельцами предприятий и наемными работниками. Врезультате анализа статистической информации обнаружено неэффектив-ность государственной политики регулирования данного распределения вУкраине, что привело к необоснованно низких затратам на рабочую силупо сравнению с доходами владельцев капитала. К негативным последствиямтакой политики можно отнести и отсутствие прямой связи между доходамиработников и результатами их труда. Одновременно недостаточная реали-зация конституционных прав наемных работников на надлежащую оплатутруда обусловливает чрезмерную эмиграция экономически активного насе-ления Украины. Альтернативным вариантом преодоления указанных нега-тивных тенденций является государственное и договорное регулированиепропорций в распределении добавленной стоимости на предприятиях.

Te article represents the analysis of the development of theoretical conceptsof the again created product distribution between the main factors of its produc-tion such as ‘labor’ and ‘capital’. Also the features of distribution of value addedcost between the participants of its production that is between the business ownersand employees. An analysis of the statistical information has found inefficiencyof state regulation of the distribution policy in Ukraine; as a result, it has led tounreasonably low labor costs compared to income of capital owners. Te negativeconsequences of such policy can be attributed to the absence of direct link betweenincome employees and the results of their labor. At the same time the lack of im-plementation of the constitutional rights of employees for reasonable pay leads to

excessive emigration of economically active population of Ukraine. An alternativedecision to overcome these negative trends is the state and predetermined regula-tion of the proportions in the distribution of value added cost enterprises.

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K :value of added, factors production, labor income, business income, wages, prots.добавленная стоимость, факторы производства, трудовые доходы, пред-принимательские доходы, заработная плата, прибыль.

Постановка проблемы и основные задания исследованияПроблема справедливого распределения продуктов общественного тру-

да была и остается острейшей социальной проблемой. Она есть объектив-но конфликтной, ведь ее обострение вызывало, вызывает и будет вызыватьконфликты различных масштабов: саботажи и бойкоты, забастовки и лока-уты, революции и даже войны.

Социальная острота данной проблемы побудила ученых к созданию те-

оретических концепций распределения общественного продукта. В резуль-тате этого были сформированы различные классические теории разделения(в т.ч. трудовых и предпринимательских доходов), основателями которыхстали известные в мире ученые-экономисты: У. Петти, Ж.Б.Сэй А. Смит, Д.Рикардо и К. Маркс, Дж.Милль, Дж.Б.Кларк, Маршал, Н.Сениор, Ф. Бастиа,Туган-Барановский и другие.

Однако несмотря фундаментальные теоретические достижения в этомнаправлении острота справедливого распределения материальных благ, в

большей или меньшей степени, сохраняется во всех странах мира. В Украи-не при высоком уровне бедности ежегодно растет число украинских милли-онеров и миллиардеров, при этом темпы их доходов значительно опережаютрост средней зарплаты. По мнению В. Чалого, разрыв между доходами 5%самых богатых и 5% самых бедных людей Украины по разным данным со-ставляет от 38 до 70 раз и это наиболее критический показатель в Европе.Исследование состояния 2322 домохозяйств Украины, проведенные канад-скими учеными, показали, что половина всех домохозяйств, входивших в

1-5 дециле, получает 17% всех доходов, тогда как 40% доходов приходитсяна 10% самых богатых семей [3]. При этом, если учесть, что в Украине наконец 2011 года минимальная заработная плата была равна 1004 грн., а ми-нимальная зарплата депутата Верховной Рады - 17425 грн., то децильний ко-эффициент дифференциации составляет, по меньшей мере - 17 (17425 грн. /1004 грн.). Поэтому понятно, что проблема распределения вновь созданногопродукта и в дальнейшем остается актуальной и продолжает интересоватьученых всего мира.

Анализ основных теорий распределенияГенезис теоретических концепций распределения свидетельствует о раз-

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ном видении решения данной проблемы. Ведущие ученые в своих теорети-ческих исследованиях проблемы распределения основное внимание сосре-доточили на заработной плате и предпринимательских доходах. Результатомтаких исследований является ряд теоретических концепций (табл. 1).

Данные теории дают возможность выделить концептуальную осно-ву определения доли общественного продукта, который принадлежит на-емным работникам. С этой целью распространенные «теории зарплаты»сгруппированы, по сходству их содержания, в три группы:1. теория рыночной стоимости рабочей силы, которая изменяется в зави-

симости от спроса и предложения на рынке труда (А. Смит и его после-дователи);

2. теории социального противоборства и партнерства («социальная тео-рия» М. Туган-Барановского, теория «промышленного конфликта» Дж.Хикса, теория «переговоров с позиции силы» Дж. Дэвидсона);

3. теория распределения доходов по «факторами производства» - соответ-ственно количеству потребленного капитала и труда (Ж.Б. Сэй, Ф. Ба-стиа, Дж.Б. Кларк и др.).

Табл. 1 . Теоретические концепции заработной платы и предприниматель-ских доходов [1]

Теоретическая концепция ОснователиТеория минимума средств существованияОсновой заработной платы наемного работника являетсястоимость средств существования, которые необходимыдля поддержания его работоспособности

У.Петти, А.Смит,Д.Рикардо,

Марксистская теория стоимости рабочей силыВладельцы капитала присваивают прибавочную стоимость,которая должна принадлежать наемным работникам,которые ее создали

К.Маркс

Теория трудового дохода предпринимателейПредприниматели, как и работники, выполняютсоциально необходимые функции и за свой труд получаютсправедливое вознаграждение - прибыль, которая естьтрудовым доходом и является лишь другим названиемзарплаты

Дж.Милль

Теория «фонда заработной платы»Капитал, который затраченный на покупку рабочей силы,является постоянной величиной. Если от общей суммыкапитала вычесть долю, что приходится на материалы,оборудование и другие средства, то остаток будет «фондом»,

из которого выплачиваться зарплата

И.Бант, Т.Мальтус,Дж. Милль

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Теория трех факторов производстваСтоимость формируется в процессе производства какрезультат расходов трех факторов: труда, капитала и земли.Каждый из этих факторов «создает» соответствующуючасть стоимости: труд - заработную плату, капитал -процент, земля - ренту

Ж.Б.Сэй

Теория «воздержания»Предприниматели ради производства жертвуют своимблагополучием, воздерживаются в использовании средствна личное потребление. Наградой за их воздержание и рискявляется прибыль

В.Н.Сэниор

Теория услугРыночная экономика обеспечивает гармоничное ивзаимовыгодное сотрудничество классов, которыепредоставляют услуги друг другу и получают долюсовокупного продукта пропорциональную количествупредоставленных услуг

Ф.Бастиа

Теория цены и факторов ценообразованияКаждый из факторов производства имеет ценуспроса, которая устанавливается его предельнойпроизводительностью, и цену предложения, котораяопределяется его предельными издержками. Размерзаработной платы, процента и ренты является равновеснойценой факторов

А.Маршал

«Производственная» теорияГлавным фактором, который определяет размер заработнойплаты, является уровень производительности труда

Г. Кэрри

Теория «промышленного конфликта»Только активная деятельность профсоюзов повышаетзаработную плату, а забастовки наемных сотрудниковпомогают регулировать ее уровень

Дж.Гикс

Социальная теория распределенияРазмер заработной платы в обществе определяется двумяфакторами - производительностью труда и социальнойсилой рабочего класса

М.І.Туган-Барановськый

Относительно участия государства в распределении вновь созданного

продукта, то в мировой экономической истории и практике существовалодве кардинально противоположных позиций. Первая заключалась в невме-шательстве государства в экономику, где действует «невидимая рука рынка»(А. Смит, Д. Рикардо и др.), а вторая - в жестком государственном регулиро-вании экономики в целом и доходов населения в частности (К. Маркс и егопоследователи).

Согласно политике «экономического либерализма», которой придержи-вался А.Смит, государство не должно вмешиваться в решение вопросов оповышении заработной платы наемных работников, ведь это произвело бык росту цены рабочей силы и как следствие - росту безработицы из-за неже-лания предпринимателей жертвовать часть своей прибыли в пользу работ-

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ников [6]. По мнению ученого, основой заработной платы наемного работ-ника является стоимость средств существования, которые необходимы дляподдержания его работоспособности. В свою очередь, Д.Рикардо пришел квыводу, что под влиянием колебаний спроса и предложения труда заработ-ная плата имеет тенденцию к установлению «неизменной» величины, кото-

рая равна стоимости средств жизнедеятельности [5].Представление сторонников классической теории о способности рынка

к автоматического регулирования экономики и необходимость отлучениягосударства от этого регулирования не подтвердилось на практике. Напро-тив, опыт мировой экономики свидетельствует об объективной необходи-мости государственного вмешательства в экономические процессы.

В нынешних условиях развития общества теория рыночной стоимостирабочей силы реализуется путем установления государством ряда социаль-ных гарантий, таких как прожиточный минимум и минимальная заработ-ная плата. Однако, понятно, что они обеспечивают только воспроизведениеиндивидуальной работоспособности наемных работников.

Абсолютно других взглядов относительно роли государства в регули-ровании распределения общественного продукта придерживался К.Маркс.Он считал, что только распределение по принципу: от каждого - по способ-ностям, каждому - по потребностям, является справедливым. Примеромвоплощения таких взглядов на практике может служить жесткое государ-ственное регулирование всех экономических процессов в советском обще-ства.

Обе крайние позиции имели как положительные так и отрицательныечерты и только их гармоничное сочетание способно обеспечить эффектив-ное распределение общественного продукта.

Созданный в 1872 году в Германии «Союз социальной политики» былпервым шагом к более активному, но не абсолютного, вмешательству госу-дарства в регулирование доходов. Его представитель Луи Брентано отметил,что наемный работник обладает лишь одним товаром - рабочей силой, и оттого, по какой цене он ее продаст зависит его дальнейшее существование.Для того чтобы зарплата была выше, рабочим необходимо объединяться втрудовые союзы. Поэтому, зарплата, в основном, зависит от организованно-сти рабочих и деятельности трудовых союзов.

М.И. Туган-Барановский придерживался подобной позиции, которуючетко сформировал в своей «социальной» теории распределения. По мне-нию ученого, величина заработной платы в обществе определяется двумяфакторами - производительностью труда, которая определяет объем про-дукта, что подлежит распределению между классами, и социальной силой

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рабочего класса, от которой зависит доля общественного продукта, что по-ступает в распоряжение наемных работников [7].

Данная теория тесно переплетается с теорией переговоров с позициисилы Дж.Дэвидсона и теорией «промышленного конфликта» Дж.Хикса. Со-гласно первой, заработная плата - это результат переговоров между рабо-тодателями и наемными работниками, и принципы экономического анали-за не могут объяснить этот процесс. В лучшем случае могут быть описаныверхняя и нижняя границы, между которыми должен находиться уровеньзаработной платы для каждого данного вида труда, а в пределах этого ран-га величина заработной платы зависит от соответствующей переговорнойсилы работников и работодателей. Согласно второй теории, только актив-ная деятельность профсоюзов повышает заработную плату, а забастовкинаемных работников помогают регулировать ее уровень, который опреде-

ляется точкой пересечения «кривой уступок» предпринимателей и «кривойсопротивления» профсоюзов. То есть, уровень заработной платы устанав-ливается в ходе борьбы экономических субъектов и зависит от соотноше-ния сил наемных работников и работодателей, а также рынка труда в тотили иной момент времени. Отношения этих «социальных партнеров» харак-теризуются так называемым эффектом «перетягивания каната» и сопрово-ждается конфликтами [1].

Теории партнерства («социальная» и др.) реализуются в развитых стра-

нах мира, где есть сильные профсоюзы. В Швеции с начала 50-х годов про-фсоюзы проводят политику «солидарной зарплаты», которая базируется напринципах равной оплаты за равный труд и сокращении разрыва междуразмерами минимальной и максимальной зарплаты. Если из 10 предприя-тий одной отрасли 5 работают на среднем уровне, два - убыточно, а 3 яв-ляются высокорентабельные, то работники каждого из этих предприятийполучают одинаковую заработную плату - на среднем уровне, зафиксиро-ванном в отраслевом договоре. К сожалению, в Украине сила профсоюзов

незначительна и в основном их роль в отстаивании прав наемных работни-ков сводится к минимуму. Однако, следует отметить, что несмотря на своюраспространенность, теории партнерства не устраняют в корне конфлик-ты по распределению вновь созданного продукта, а лишь локализируют и«приглушают» их на время.

Популярной среди теорий распределения можно считать теорию трехфакторов производства (Ж.Б. Сэя, Ф. Бастиа), в которой формированиевновь созданной стоимости в процессе производства рассматривается какрезультат расходов трех основных факторов: труда, капитала и земли. Каж-дый фактор «создает» соответствующую часть стоимости: труд - заработнуюплату, капитал - процент, земля - ренту [2]. В результате чего прибыль явля-

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ется вознаграждением предпринимателя, так называемым «процентом» завложенный в производство капитал, а заработная плата - вознаграждениемза труд. Впоследствии данная концепция получила своеобразное продол-жение в теории предельной полезности (Дж.Б. Кларк, К. Менгер и др.), со-гласно которой вновь созданный продукт (добавленная стоимость) должен

распределяться пропорционально предельным затратам каждого фактора.С дальнейшим развитием теории трех факторов производства и толко-

ванием ее сущности можно связать возникновение проблемы «предприни-мательского дохода». Появилось много подходов к объяснению его природыи сущности. В частности, согласно теории Д.Милля предприниматели обра-зуют отдельную группу работников. При этом и работники, и предприни-матели выполняют социально необходимые функции: первые - функции ис-полнителей, другие - функции организаторов [2]. За свой труд они получа-

ют справедливое вознаграждение: работники - зарплату, предприниматели- прибыль, которая будучи трудовым доходом, является другим названиемзаработной платы. В свою очередь, в теории воздержания (Н. Сениор) при-быль представлен как процент на вложенный капитал. В ее основу положенаидея, что предприниматели ради производства жертвуют своим благополу-чием, сдерживают себя в повседневном использовании средств на личноепотребление, проявляют бережливость и т.д. Кроме того, вложив свой ка-питал, они переживают, рискуют, ожидая эффекта от капиталовложений.

Наградой за их воздержание и риск является прибыль [4].Анализ вышеприведенного свидетельствует, что на замену политики«экономического либерализма», «жесткого государственного регулиро-вания» и «социальным» теориям распределения общественного продуктаприходит осознание необходимости государственного регулирования от-дельных составляющих данного процесса. При этом, трудовые доходы бу-дут существенно отличаться в зависимости от того, что будет положено воснову их государственного регулирования: стоимость рабочей силы на

рынке труда, необходимые затраты на воспроизводство рабочей силы иличасть общественного продукта, распределена между работниками пропор-ционально количеству и качеству труда.

В результате сравнительного анализа теорий распределения доказано,что в регулировании трудовых доходов в современных условиях развитияУкраины должна доминировать теория распределения доходов (вновь со-зданной стоимости) за «факторами производства» - пропорционально за-тратам труда и капитала. Основным обоснованием такого выбора являют-ся следующие контраргументы относительно других теорий. Во-первых, взависимости от соотношения спроса и предложения на рынке труда про-исходит только дифференциация стоимости рабочей силы, а средний уро-

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вень зарплаты и предпринимательских доходов зависит от количества вновьсозданного продукта, который должен справедливо распределяться междунаемными работниками и собственниками капитала. К тому же, рынок тру-да в Украине недостаточно развит и поэтому он не может в полной меререгулировать трудовые доходы. Во-вторых, теории социальной борьбы и пе-

реговоров имеют нежелательную конфликтную основу - объективное про-тиворечие интересов, поэтому они могут применяться только как крайниеи вспомогательные меры в распределении доходов. Кроме того, профсоюзыУкраины является малодейственными и не способными отстаивать с «пози-ции силы» надлежащую наемным работникам долю доходов.

Стоит отметить, что теории распределения вновь созданного продуктамежду факторами производства в соответствии с затратами каждого из нихдоминируют более 200 лет и их объективность доказана результатами мно-

гих статистических исследований. В частности, анализ влияния факторовпроизводства на величину добавленной стоимости был осуществлен амери-канскими учеными К.У. Коббом и П.X. Дугласом.

Анализ распределения валовой добавленной стоимости (ВДС)Распределение ВДС между факторами производства - «трудом» и «ка-

питалом» - на фонд потребления и фонд накопления, в мировой практикепроисходит в следующих пропорциях: ¼ ВДС - на накопление, а ¾ - на по-требление.

Примерно такое же соотношение сохраняется и в Украине, в частностив результате анализа распределения валового внутренего продукта (ВВП) в2002 г. (в соответствии с национальными счетами) можно увидеть, что доляобщественного продукта, направленная на накопление капитала, составля-ет 20,2%, а доля направлена на конечное потребление - 75,4% (рис. 1).

При этом только 23,5% из 55,1% потребительских расходов домашниххозяйств занимает зарплата, а 20% приходится на социальные пособия итрансферты. При этом в 2009 г. при увеличении общих потребительскихрасходов на 9,2%, доля заработной платы выросла всего на 3,5%, а доля со-циальной помощи - на 6%. Как видим, наблюдается снижение доли, а соот-ветственно и роли, заработной платы в общей структуре доходов домохо-зяйств.

Рисунок 1 . Распределение ВВП Украины в 2002 г. (2009 г.)

Табл. 2. Производство ВДС Украины по видам экономической

деятельности, млрд.грн.

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Виды экономическойдеятельности

Год Темпроста(2011г./2002 г.)

2002 2006 2007 2009 2010 2011

Всего по видамэкономическойдеятельности:

201,19 544,15 720,73 913,35 1082,57 1302,07 6,47

- сельское и лесноехозяйство, охота 29,42 41,01 47,42 65,76 82,64 110,56 3,76

- промышленность 50,41 131,48 175,12 182,55 224,03 253,465,03- строительство 7,65 21,17 30,46 21,53 32,52 37,23 4,87- торговля; услуги поремонту 24,59 68,57 95,22 129,99 164,83 203,76 8,29

- транспорт и связь 27,52 56,05 70,06 97,05 111,01 133,19 4,84- другие виды эконом.

деятельности46,58 124,89 183,17 266,63 287,08 319,32 6,86

В то же время, темпы роста заработной платы, как составляющей рас-пределения добавленной стоимости по видам экономической деятельности,не совпадают с темпами роста добавленной стоимости, а именно - меньшеих на 30%. При этом темпы роста добавленной стоимости и заработной пла-ты по отдельным видам экономической деятельности также неравномерны.В частности, в строительстве при росте добавленной стоимости в 4,9 разазаработная плата выросла только в 4,2 раз, а в сельском хозяйстве наоборот -

добавленная стоимость выросла в 3,8 раза, а заработная плата - в 4,4 (табл. 3).В макроэкономическом анализе и международных сравнениях обычноиспользуется показатель «доля оплаты труда» в ВВП или в ВДС. Так, в 2011г. в странах ЕС доля оплаты труда наемных работников колебалась от 37 до60%. В Украине она составляла почти 49% ВВП, что соответствует среднемупоказателю по странам ЕС (табл. 4)

Табл. 3. Динамика заработной платы по видам экономической деятельно-сти в Украине, млрд.грн.

Виды экономическойдеятельности

Год Темпроста

(2011г./2002г.)

2002 2006 2007 2009 2010 2011

Всего по видамэ к о н о м и ч е с к о йдеятельности:

103,12 268,63 351,94 451,34 540,65 636,72 6,17

- сельское и лесное

хозяйство, охота5,11 8,45 11,87 14,14 17,54 22,41 4,39

- промышленность 29,81 78,09 99,32 108,43 132,02 153,03 5,13- строительство 4,84 14,96 21,09 14,46 15,36 20,10 4,15

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- торговля; услуги поремонту 10,63 24,85 32,23 46,52 68,53 84,78 7,98

- транспорт и связь 14,07 30,62 35,47 48,62 56,22 67,61 4,81- другие видыэконом. деятельности 25,29 74,14 103,26 145,81 164,52 193,06 7,63

Табл. 4. Структура валового внутреннего продукта некоторых стран ЕС иУкраины по категориям дохода в 2011 г.,% [8]

СтраныОплата труда

наемныхработников

Валовая прибыль,смешанный доход

Налоги за исключениемсубсидий на производство

и импортЄС-27 49,1 39,0 11,8Австрия 49,3 40,1 10,6Бельгия 51,5 38,3 10,2Великобритания 53,7 33,5 12,8Дания 55,4 30,6 14,1Испания 47,8 43,7 8,5Италия 42,3 44,8 13,0Латвия 41,7 48,2 10,1Литва 39,4 50,1 10,5Германия 51,2 38,6 10,3Норвегия 45,1 45,1 9,8

Польша 36,8 50,2 13,0Словакия 37,5 54,0 8,5Словения 52,3 35,2 12,5Венгрия 43,8 41,9 14,3Финляндия 50,9 36,6 12,5Франция 53,5 32,9 13,6Швейцария 59,7 37,1 3,2Швеция 52,4 30,7 16,8

Украина 48,9 36,8 14,3

Результаты исследования дифференциации трудовых доходов свиде-тельствуют о необходимости структурных сдвигов в распределении обще-ственного продукта в сторону «доли оплаты труда». При этом, регулирова-ние заработной платы должно происходить в контексте вновь созданнойстоимости, а не себестоимости продукции, как предлагают некоторые на-родные депутаты. Себестоимость продукции не может служить базой ре-

гулирования доли зарплаты, поскольку доля расходов предприятия на ма-териально-энергетические ресурсы (промежуточное потребление) в ее со-ставе для различных видов продукции и услуг отличаются в несколько раз.

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В связи с тем, что различна и капиталовооруженность труда (потребле-ние капитала), то регулирование доли заработной платы наемных работни-ков должно осуществляться относительно чистой продукции предприятия- добавленной стоимости (за исключением амортизации), а на макроэконо-мическом уровне - чистого национального продукта. При таком регулирова-

нии обеспечивается прямая связь между размером вознаграждения за труди производительностью труда - выработкой чистой продукции на одногоработника. Однако, как свидетельствуют результаты проведенного стати-стического исследования, доля зарплаты в добавленной стоимости по видамэкономической деятельности и на отдельных предприятиях отличается отсреднестатистической на десятки процентов (рис. 2). Так в промышленно-сти за 2011 г. она составляла 60,4%, а в сельском хозяйстве - лишь 20,3%.

Существенно отличаются и соотношение между валовыми доходами ирасходами на оплату труда. Валовые доходы на 1 гривну зарплаты в нацио-нальной экономике в 2011 г. составляют 0,75 грн., в сельском хозяйстве - 3,95грн., в промышленности - 0,67 грн. (рис. 3).

О недостатках в государственной и региональной политике регулирова-ния трудовых доходов свидетельствует и анализ дифференциации заработ-ной платы по видам экономической деятельности. По данным ГоскомстатаУкраины номинальная среднемесячная зарплата в 2011 г. составляла 2633грн. (примерно 263 евро), в то время как в Латвии - 744 евро, в Венгрии - 872евро, в Польше - 1382 евро, в Великобритании - 3337 евро [8].

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Высокие уровни средней номинальной зарплаты в 2011 году наблюда-лись в финансовой деятельности (5340 грн.), промышленности (3120 грн.),отрасли транспорт и связь (3138 грн.), а самые низкие - в образовании (2081грн.), сельском, лесном хозяйстве и охоте (1800 грн.) и здравоохранении(1778 грн.). Итак, в 2011 году среднемесячная заработная плата работниковпо видам экономической деятельности отличалась в 3 раза. При этом самаянизкая заработная плата была меньше средней по экономике в 1,5 раза, асамая высокая - больше в 2 раза (рис. 4).

Тем не менее, для объективной оценки современного состояния и тенден-ций в оплате труда, важно оценить динамику заработной платы в сопоставле-нии с другими показателями, в частности производительностью труда.

Всего в 2002-2011 гг. в экономике Украины темпы роста производитель-ности труда опережали темпы роста заработной платы. Вместе с тем, наблю-дается значительная дифференциация и расхождение данных показателей повидам экономической деятельности. В частности, в строительстве заработнаяплата росла медленнее производительности труда, в сельском хозяйстве - на-оборот, и только в промышленности и отрасли «транспорт и связь» темпыроста зарплаты и производительности труда почти совпадали (рис. 5). Приэтом наиболее быстрыми темпами росла производительность труда в сель-ском хозяйстве, а наименьшими - в промышленности и отрасли «транспорт исвязь». В то же время зарплата быстрее росла в сельском хозяйстве и торговле,а медленнее - в отрасли «транспорт и связь» и строительстве

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2633

18003120

2251

2339

31385340

3053

2081

1778

0

2000

4000

6000

Всего по видамэкономической деятельности

Сельськое, лесное хозяйство

Промышленность

Строительство

Торговля; услуги по ремонту

Транспорт и связь

Финансовая деятельность

Государственное управление

Образование

Здравоохранение

Рисунок 4: Среднемесячная заработная плата по видам экономическойдеятельности в Украине в 2011 г., грн.

Если при распределении ВДС между «трудом» и «капиталом» по видамэкономической деятельности, придерживаться пропорций, которые сложи-лись на общенациональном уровне в 2011 году (доля фонда оплаты труда48,9%), то можно увидеть существенный разрыв между фактической и рас-четной заработной платой. А если при распределении ориентироваться нафактическую долю фонда оплаты в ВДС по видам экономической деятель-ности, то ситуация несколько изменится (рис. 6). В частности, в 2011 годуфактическая доля фонда оплаты труда в добавленной стоимости произве-денной в сельском хозяйстве была равна 20,3%. Следовательно, фактическаясреднемесячная зарплата одного работника занятого в сельском хозяйстве

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должна была бы составлять 2566 грн. вместо 1800 грн., а если бы доля фон-да оплаты труда была равна общенациональной (48,9%), то среднемесячнаязарплата составила бы 6182 грн.

Однако для удовлетворения потребностей различных участников производ-ства и обеспечения стабильного развития экономики добавленная стоимостьдолжна быть не просто распределена, а распределена рационально. Ведь про-порции данного разделения непосредственно влияют и на уровень жизни насе-ления, и на темпы экономического развития страны. Кроме того, ВДС по видамэкономической деятельности должна распределяться по-разному, так как доля«капитала» будет выше в отраслях с большей фондовооруженностью, особеннотам, где степень износа основных средств будет выше, а не наоборот.

ВыводыПроведенный анализ статистической и полученной в результате иссле-

дований информации свидетельствует о неэффективности государственнойполитики регулирования распределения добавленной стоимости. Негатив-ными результатами такой политики являются:

1. необоснованно низкие затраты на рабочую силу по сравнению с дохода-ми владельцев капитала, что приводит к значительной дифференциациитрудовых доходов;

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2. отсутствие прямой связи между трудовыми доходами наемных работ-ников и результатами их труда приводит к низкой мотивации до повы-шения производительности труда;

3. недостаточная реализация конституционных прав наемных работниковна надлежащую оплату труда и как результат - чрезмерная эмиграцияэкономически активного населения Украины.Альтернативным вариантом преодоления указанных негативных тенден-

ций является государственное и договорное регулирование пропорций в рас-пределении добавленной стоимости на предприятиях Украины. Также эффек-тивному регулированию распределения вновь созданного продукта может спо-собствовать внедрение на предприятиях концепции участия наемных работни-ков в распределении добавленной стоимости, что позволит установить прямуюи полную зависимость величина расходов на оплату труда от конечных резуль-татов труда (величины ежемесячно создаваемой добавленной стоимости).

Литература / RГуменюк В.Я., Самолюк Н.М. (2012) Управління витратами на персонал: Мо-

нографія. – Рівне: НУВГП.Базилевич В.Д. (2005) Історія економічних учень: підруч. / [за ред. В.Д. Бази-

левича]. К.: Знання.

Кузнєцова Т.В., Аверкина М.Ф. (2006) Вирівнювання диференціації доходівнаселення як умова відтворення трудового потенціалу і економічногозростання. Вісник НУВГП. Економіка: Зб.наук.пр. (Ч.1.), с. 293-300

Чухно А.А., Єщенко П.С., Климко Г.Н. (2001) Основи економічної теорії: під-руч. К.: Вища школа.

Рикардо Д. (2000) Начала политической экономии. У. Петти, А.Смит, Д. Рі-кардо, Дж. Кейс, М. Фридмен. Классика экономической мысли: соч. М.:ЭКСМО-Пресс.

Сміт А. (2001) Добробут націй. Дослідження про природу та причини до-бробуту націй; пер.з англ. К.: Port-Royal.

Туган-Барановський М.І. (1994) Політична економія. К.: Наукова думка.Статистические данные Статистической службы Европейского союза [Элек-

тронный ресурс] - Режим доступа: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/Статистические данные Государственной службы статистики Украины

[Электронный ресурс] - Режим доступа:http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/

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P

Ufuk YolcuAnkara University, Faculty of Science,

Department of Statistics, urkey [email protected]

Cagdas Hakan Aladag Hacettepe University, Faculty of Science,

Department of Statistics, urkey [email protected]

ANowadays, it is of vital importance to make predictions about the future in

terms of planning and strategy formulation. Tis can be realized by accurate andrealistic analysis of information and data that have emerged from past to present.Especially, governments must make as possible as accurate and realistic predictionin order to produce an accurate planning and budget based on historical data.Public expenditure forecasting is an important factor for balance of budget. In

addition, with its multiplier effect, public expenditure has distinctive role on othercomponents of economy such as national income, employment and private con-sumption expenditures. Tat is, public expenditure and forecasting it accuratelyhave vital importance on the economy of countries. Different approaches namelystochastic and non-stochastic approaches have been proposed in the literature forthe analysis of time series like this. Particularly, in recent years, the use of non-sto-chastic models such as fuzzy time series approaches for the analysis of time serieshas become widespread. In this study, Expenditures of Central Government Bud-

get (ECGB) of urkey is forecasted with different fuzzy time series approach. Tefuzzy time series approach is rarely applied for the forecast of public expenditures,and as far as we know this is the rst of such attempts involving urkish data.Different fuzzy time series forecasting models are applied to the data data fromJanuary 2007 to May 2013 in order to reach accurate forecasts. Obtained resultsfrom the different fuzzy time series approaches evaluate as a whole. As a result ofthe implementation, it is shown that fuzzy time series approaches can be effectivelyused to forecast of ECGB.

K :Forecasting, Expenditures of Central Government Budget, Fuzzy time series.

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IMany studies presented that public expenditures directly or indirectly affect

economy. Te government’s spending policies consisting of economic growth, fullemployment, price stability and arrangement of fund and distribution of incomeis really important in terms of its effect on economical behaviors of private sectorand outcomes. Public expenditures are decisive on national income and employ-ment by its multiplier effect on the other hand affects the aggregate demand com-ponents such as private consumption expenditures (Durukaya, 2012).

Tere are many studies to research that public expenditures effect on the othercomponents of economy. Blanchard and Perotti (2002) searched that public ex-penditures effect on the economic activities. According to this study, increase ofpublic expenditures causes a signicant increase of product, real wages and con-sumption whereas it causes decreasing private investment expenditures. Schclarek(2007) obtained similar ndings. Fatás ve Mihov (2001) conrm that increase ofpublic expenditures causes a permanent and signicant increase of private con-sumption. D’Alessandro (2010) determined that public expenditures have impactwith positive aspect on private consumption. Karras (1994), Hjelm (2002), Okubo(2003), Nieh and Ho (2006) and Gali et al. (2007) put forward that there is comple-mentarity relation between public expenditures and private consumption. akingall of these studies into account, public expenditure and its’ accuracy forecastingare of vital importance with respect to the economy of countries.

Different approaches namely stochastic and non-stochastic approaches havebeen proposed in the literature for the analysis of time series, like this. In recentyears, the use of non-stochastic models such as fuzzy time series approach for theanalysis of time series has become widespread. Te main advantage of fuzzy timeseries approaches is that they do not need assumptions that stochastic models do.

Te concept of fuzzy time series was rst introduced by Song and Chissom(1993 a). Fuzzy time series forecasting models consist of three steps as fuzzica-tion, identication of fuzzy relation and defuzzication which have an inuenceon forecasting performance of the method. Many researchers have carried outstudies using different approaches on these three steps.

In the fuzzication step, Song and Chissom (1993a, 1993b, 1994) and Chen(1996, 2002) determined xedly interval lengths arbitrarily whereas Huarng(2001) used average and distribution based and Egrioglu et al. (2010, 2011) usedoptimization based methods. In addition, for the analysis of time series containingtrend, a ratio-based length of intervals is proposed by Huarng and Yu (2006a). Inaddition, Cheng et al. (2008), Li et al. (2008), Aladag et al. (2012), Alpaslan et al.

(2012), Egrioglu (2012), Egrioglu et al. (2013) and Alpaslan and Cagcag (2012)were used fuzzy C-means (FCM) and Gustafson-Kessel fuzzy clustering tech-niques, respectively.

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Identication of fuzzy relation is the step in which the appropriate model isdetermined. Song and Chissom (1993a, 1993b, 1994) used fuzzy relation matrix.Chen (1996) proposed a simpler approach using fuzzy logic group relationshipstables. Huarng and Yu (2006b) proposed a rst-order fuzzy time series approachwhich uses feed-forward neural networks (FFANN) in this step. Aladag et al.

(2009) proposed a high-order fuzzy time series forecasting model which usesFFANN in the determination of fuzzy relations. Yolcu et al. (2013) proposed anapproach which considers the membership values and used FCM technique in-stead of determining the membership values subjectively.

In this study, we aim to forecast the ECGB from January 2007 to May 2013 byapplying different fuzzy time series approaches. When obtained results from thedifferent fuzzy time series approaches evaluate, it is shown that fuzzy time seriesapproaches can be effectively used for forecasting of ECGB. Te rest of this paper

is designed as follows. In Section 2, the basic concepts of fuzzy time series arebriey reviewed. Section 3 gives the implementation. Te last section concludesthe paper.

F T STe fuzzy time series was rstly dened by Song and Chissom (1993a). Te

basic denitions of fuzzy time series, and time variant and time invariant fuzzytime series denitions are given below.Denition 1 LetY (t ) (t = …, 0, 1, 2, …), a subset of real numbers, be the universeof discourse on which fuzzy sets f j(t ) are dened. IfF (t ) is a collection of f 1(t ), f 2(t ),… thenF (t )is called a fuzzy time series dened onY (t ).Denition 2 SupposeF (t ) is caused byF (t – 1) only, i.e.,F (t – 1) →F (t ). Ten thisrelation can be expressed asF (t ) =F (t – 1) °R(t , t – 1) whereR(t , t – 1) is the fuzzyrelationship betweenF (t – 1) andF (t ), andF (t ) = F (t – 1) °R(t , t – 1) is called therst order model ofF (t ). “ ° “ represents max-min composition of fuzzy sets.

Denition 3 SupposeR(t , t – 1) is a rst order model ofF (t ). If for anyt , R(t , t – 1)is independent oft , i.e., for anyt , R(t , t – 1) =R(t – 1, t – 2), thenF (t ) is calleda time invariant fuzzy time series otherwise it is called a time variant fuzzy timeseries.

Song and Chissom (1993a) rstly introduced an algorithm based on the rstorder model for forecasting time invariantF (t ). In Song and Chissom’s labour, thefuzzy relationship matrixR(t , t – 1) =R is obtained by many matrix operations.Te fuzzy forecasts are obtained based on max-min composition as below:

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(1)

Te dimension of R matrix depends on the number of fuzzy sets. Te numberof fuzzy sets equals to the number of intervals that compose of universe of dis-

course. Te more fuzzy sets are used, the more matrix operations are needed forobtain R matrix. When the number of fuzzy set is high, using the method proposedby Song and Chissom (1993b) considerably increases the computational cost. Inthis situation, the method suggested by Song and Chissom is given as below.

Denition 4 LetF (t ) be a time invariant fuzzy time series. If F (t ) is caused by F (t –2), F (t – 1), … , andF (t – n) then this fuzzy logical relationship is representedby

(2)

and it is called thenth order fuzzy time series forecasting model.

T AIn this study, we used different fuzzy time series forecasting methods for fore-

casting of ECGB. Tese methods are Song and Chissom (1993b) - SC93b, Chen(1996) - C96, Huarng (2001) - H011 (distribution based) and H012 (average based),Chen (2002) - C02, Huarng and Yu (2006b) - HY06b, Cheng et al. (2008) - C08,Aladag et al. (2009) - A09 and Yolcu et al. (2013) - Y13. Each of these methods usesdifferent approaches in each steps of analysis process. Te graph of monthly ECGBdata from January 2007 to May 2013 is given in Figure 1.

In the analysis of ECGB, we used observations of last ve month as the out-of-sample observations (test data). Te number of fuzzy sets and intervals are variedbetween 5 and 15 in the analysis of all forecasting method. Te number of hiddenlayer of articial neural network is taken between 1 and 12 in A09 and Y13. Inaddition, the model order is taken between 1 and 12 for C02 and A09.

Te error criteria obtained from the case where we obtained the best resultsfor the test data are presented in ables 1. In these tables, RMSE, MAPE, and DArepresent root mean square error, mean absolute percentage error, and directionaccuracy criteria, respectively. Mentioned performance measures were calculatedover the test set.

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Figure 1. Te graph of monthly expenditures of central government budget

Table 1 Te error criteria obtained from analysis

We obtained the superlative results given in able 1 when;• the interval length was 2500 for the SC93b;• the interval length was 6000 for the C96;• the interval length was 4000 for the H011 (distribution based);• the interval length was 200 for the H012 (average based);• the interval length was 5000 and model order twelve for the A09;• the ratio sample percentile was 0.5 for the H06b;• the number of the fuzzy sets was twelve for the C08;• the interval length was 3500, the number of the neurons in the hidden layer

was ve and model order twelve for the A09;• the number of the fuzzy sets was thirteen and the number of the neurons in

the hidden layer was one for the Y13.

When able 1 is examined, it is seen that fuzzy time series approaches producegood forecasts for ECGB data. All forecasting results can also be compared to each

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other according to able 1. Te best results are obtained from the approaches sug-gested by Aladag et al. (2009) and Yolcu et al. (2013) in terms of all performancemeasures. Te forecasting results can also be examined visually. Te graph of ob-servations and forecasts obtained from the best two methods Aladag et al. (2009)and Yolcu et al. (2013) for the test set is given in Figure 2. From this gure, it is

clearly seen that the obtained forecasts are very good.

Figure 2. Te graph of observations and forecasts obtained from the best twomethods.

CPublic expenditure forecasting problem is an important task. Terefore, vari-

ous forecasting techniques which are stochastic or non-stochastic have been usedto solve public expenditure forecasting problem. Te fuzzy time series approachis rarely applied for the forecast of public expenditures, and as far as we know thisis the rst of such attempts involving urkish data. o accurately forecast expen-ditures of central government budget of urkey, nine different fuzzy time seriesforecasting approaches available in the literature were applied to the data. As aresult of the implementation, it was observed that fuzzy time series approach giveaccurate for this time series. All forecasting results obtained from these methods

are compared to each other in terms of RMSE, MAPE, and DA criteria. Te mostaccurate forecasts were obtained when methods proposed by Aladag et al. (2009)and Yolcu et al. (2013). Tese ndings show that fuzzy time series approach is a

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good alternative method to forecast public expenditure time series.

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oping Countries”, Journal of Macroeconomics, 29(4), 912-39.Fatás, A. ve Mihov, I. (2001), “Te Effects of Fiscal Policy on Consumption and Em-

ployment: Teory and Evidence”, CEPR Discussion Paper, 2760, Centre for Eco-nomic Policy Research.

D’Alessandro, A. (2010), “How can Government Spending Affect Private Consump-tion? A Panel Cointegration Approach”, European Journal of Economics, Financeand Administrative Sciences, 18, 40-57.

Karras, G. (1994), “Government Spending and Private Consumption: Some Interna-

tional Evidence”, Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 26(1), 9-22.Hjelm, G. (2002), “Is Private Consumption Growth Higher (Lower) During Periods

of Fiscal Contractions (Expansions)?”, Journal of Macroeconomics, 24(1), 17- 39.Okubo, M. (2003), “Intratemporal Substitution between Private and Government

Consumption: Te Case of Japan”, Economics Letters, 79(1), 75-81.Nieh, C.C. ve Ho, . (2006), “Does the Expansionary Government Spending Crowd

out the Private Consumption? Cointegration Analysis in Panel Data”, Te Quar-terly Review of Economics and Finance, 46, 133-148.

Gali, J., Salido, L.D.J. ve Valles, J. (2007), “Understanding the Effects of GovernmenSpending on Consumption”, Journal of the European Economic Association, 5(1),227-270.

Song, Q. and Chissom, B.S., 1993a. Forecasting enrollments with fuzzy time series-Part I,Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 54, 1-10.

Song, Q. and Chissom, B.S., 1993b. Fuzzy time series and its models,Fuzzy Sets andSystems, 54, 269-277.

Song, Q. and Chissom, B.S., 1994. Forecasting enrollments with fuzzy time series- PartII,Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 62 1-8.Chen, S. M., 1996. Forecasting enrollments based on fuzzy time-series,Fuzzy Sets and

Systems, 81, 311-319.Chen, S.M., 2002. Forecasting enrollments based on high order fuzzy time series,Cy-

bernetics and Systems, 33, 1-16.Huarng, K., 2001. Effective length of intervals to improve forecasting in fuzzy time-se-

ries,Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 123, 387-394.Egrioglu, E., Aladag, C.H., Yolcu, U., Uslu, V.R. and Başaran, M.A., 2010. Finding an

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