Philippine Normal University

National Center for Teachers Education

Taft Avenue, Manila

WRITTEN REPORT ON HISTORY OF MAINLAND

Cambodia

Laos

Myanmar

Thailand

Vietnam

ASEAN Society and Culture

Prof. V. Colis

Group 3: II-3 BEE

Rovillos, Rainer John

Santos, Rose Ann Camille

Sison, Rocel

Sobonsky, Rapunzel

Tizon, Genesis

Villanueva, Lea Paula

Zambrano, Krizza

HISTORY OF CAMBODIAI. Pre History

There is a legend in Cambodia that states how the land came to be.o Through the union of a princess, daughter of a dragon king who rules over a

watery land and a foreigner who is an Indian Brahman named Kaundinya. One time Kaundinya sailed by the watery land and the princess came to greet him. He shot an arrow from his magic bow into her boat causing the fearful princess to agree to a marriage. In a great need of a dowry the dragon king drank up all the water in his land and presented them to Kaundinya to rule over. The new kingdom was named Kambuja.

This legend is historically opaque but it does say something about the cultural forces that brought Cambodia into existence and began to coalesce as a cultural entity in their own right between the first and fifth century.

The first humans in were Stone Age hunters and gatherers. However farming was introduced in Cambodia in about 2300 B.C. the first farmers in Cambodia used stone tools in but from 1500 B.C they used weapons and tools made in bronze and by about 500 B.C they learned to use iron.

Cambodia’s first civilization arose in the Mekong River Delta in southern Vietnamduring 150 AD. This civilization was known to the Chinese who called it Fu-nan.

II. Early Kingdoms of Cambodia

A. Funan Kingdom

Funan was the first kingdom that arose in Cambodia during the 1 st century to 6th century AD with it’s capital Vyadhapura (Hunter City in Sanskrit).

Founded by Kaundinya. It was said to be the largest of all the kingdoms in Cambodia. Funan is a Chinese name and it may be a transliteration of the ancient Khmer word

‘Bnam/Vnam’ (Mountain). This kingdom may have existed across an area between Ba Phnom in Prey Veng Province and Oc-Eo in KienGiang Province in Southern Vietnam.

Funan kingdom embraced the worship of the Hindu deities Shiva and Vishnu and at the same time, Buddhism. The people practiced primitive irrigation which enabled successful cultivation of rice and traded raw commodities such as spices with China and India.

The weakening of the Funan Empire was unclear, and it was overthrown by one of its vassal state of Chenla in early 7th century.

The Funanese people were completely absorbed by Chenla as time passed by.

Funan thus had laid a basic foundation for the evolution of Angkor Civilization in later centuries.

B. Chenla Kingdom

Chenla is a Chinese term and there is little to support the idea that Chenla was unified kingdom.

Chenla emerged around 6th to 8th century as a subordinate of Funan Kingdom. However after 60 years Chenla achieve its independence and conquered the whole Funan absorbing its people and culture.

Chinese called themselves water chenla and land chenla. Water Chenla was locatyed around Angkor Borei and the temple mount of Phnom Da. Land Chenlawas in the upper reaches of Mekong River and east of Tonle’ Sap Lake. Late in the eighth century AD, Water Chenla was subjected to attacks by pirates from

Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. By the beginning of the ninth century, it had apparently become a vassal of the

Sailendra dynasty of Java. The last of the Water Chenla kings allegedly was killed around AD 790 by a Javanese

monarch whom he had offended. The ultimate victor in the strife that followed was the ruler of a small Khmer state

located north of the Mekong Delta. His assumption of the throne as Jayavarman II (ca. AD 802-50) marked the liberation of the Khmer people from Javanese suzerainty and the beginning of a unified Khmer nation.

Another naval state emerged into a strong "Java Empire" across the sea. Dispute among the historians about the center of this Java Empire still has not been resolved, as it could be either the Java Island of today Indonesia or the Malay Peninsula. Java vigorously expanded its territory, sailed to invade, and finally conquered the weak Chenla states.

Ironically, the fate of Chenla and the invasion of Java Empire planted the actual seed for the establishment of the Angkor Empire.

C. Rise of the Angkor Empire

The sacred mountain of Phnom Kulen is home to an inscription that tells of Jayaverman II proclaiming himself a universal monarch or Devaraja (God-King) in 802.

Jayavarman II is said to be a resident in the Buddhist Shailendra’s court in Java. Upon his return to Cambodia he instigated an uprising against Javanese control over southern lands of Cambodia.

He set out to bring the country under his control through alliances and conquests, the first monarch to rule Cambodia.

After 802CE, Jayavarman II continued to pacify rebellious areas and enlarge his kingdom. Before 802CE, he had briefly based himself at a pre-Angkorian settlement near the modern

town of Roluos (13km southeast of Siem Reap).

For some reason, perhaps due to military considerations, he moved from the Roluos area to the Kulen Mountains.

Some- time after establishing his kingship in 802CE, he moved the capital back to the Roluos area, which he named Hariharalaya in honor of the combined god of Shiva and Vishnu. He reigned from Hariharalaya until his death in 850CE.

The key to the rise of Angkor was a mastery of water and elaborate hydraulic system that allowed Khmers to tame the elements.

First massive irrigation works that supported the population of Angkor was dated to the reign of Indravarman(I,II or III) who built the Baray (reservoir) of Indratataka. He marks the flourishing of Angkorian art with the building of temples in the Roluos area, notably in Bakong.

By the turn of the 11th century the kingdom was losing control of its territories. Suryavarman I, a usurper, reunified the kingdom through war and alliances, stretching the

frontiers of the Empire. A pattern was beginning to emerge and is repeated throughout the Angkorian Period: Dislocation and turnoil, followed by reunification and further expansion under a powerful king.

By 1066 Angkor was again driven by conflict, becoming the focus of rival bids for power. SuryavarmanII(1112-51) embarked on another phase of expansion, waging costly wars in

Vietnam and the region of central Vietnam known as Champa. He brought Champa to heel and reduced it to vassal status but the Chams struck back in 1177 with a naval expedition up the Mekong and into Tonle’ Sap Lake. Chamstooks the city of Angkor and put king Dharanindravarman II to death.

The following year a cousin of Suryavarman II rallied the Khmer troops and defeated the Chams in another naval battle. The new leader was crowned, Jayavarman VII in 1181.

Jayavarman VII built the city of Angkor Thom and many other monuments. He was the first Cambodian socialist leader who proclaimed the population as equal, abolished castes and embarked on a program of school, hospital and road building.

D. Decline and fall of Angkor Empire

The irrigation network was overworked and slowly starting to silt up due to massive deforestation. Massive construction projects such as Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom put an enormous strain on the royal coffers and on thousands of slaves and common people who subsidized them in hard labor and taxes.

Following the reign of Jayavarman VII, temple construction effectively ground to a halt because his public works quarried local sanstone into oblivion and had left the population exhausted.

As neighboring states of the Angkor grew, they became a major threat to the empire, especially the Thai State of Ayuthaya in the Chaophaya River Basin to the West.

In order to protect the empire, the Angkor had to direct portion of its manpower to secure strong armed forces, which in turn, deprived itself from giving good maintenance to its irrigation system. During this period, perhaps drawn by the opportunities for sea trade with

China and fear of the increasingly bellicose Thais, the Khmer elites began to migrate to the Phnom Penh area.

The road network built by Jayavarman VII had aided the transports of products and trades throughout the empire and also facilitated the Khmer troops to quell its neighbors. It had become a double-edged sword when the Angkor became weak as the invaders could easily march in through this road network, instead of previously sailing up from the Mekong River.

This turned out to be true when the newly emerged Ayuthaya, a Thai kingdom in the West became stronger. They use this road to march from the Chaophaya River basin through Phnomrung (in Burirum of modern Thailand) and then through Aranyapathet to attack right at the heart of Angkor and finally sacked the empire in 1431. The glory of the Angkor Civilization was terminated since that time.

III. Colonization period

The era of yo-yoing between Thai and Vietnamese masters came to close in 1864, when French gunboats intimidated King Norodom I as Cambodia was in danger of vanishing from the map.

By 1870’s French officials in Cambodia began pressing for greater control over internal affairs. Norodom was forced into signing a treaty that turned his country into virtual colony, sparking a two year rebellion that constituted the only major uprising in Cambodia until World War II.

In 1907 the French were able to pressure Thailand into returning the northwest provinces of battambang, Siem Reap and Sisophon in return for concessions of Laos territory to the Thais.

During World War II the Japanese were able to occupy much of Asia. With France collaborating with the occupying Germans, the Japanese were happy to let their new French allies control affairs in Cambodia.

The fall of Paris in 1944 and French policy in disarray, the Japanese were forced to take control of the territory by early 1945.

After World War II, the French returned making Cambodia an autonomous state within the French Union.

The end of France’s control over Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam became official in July 1954 with the signing of the Geneva Accords.

This concluded 90 years of French administration in Cambodia that had started with King Ang Duong writing to France in 1853 and asking for protection against its powerful and expansionist neighbors, Vietnam and Siam, as Thailand was then called.

IV. Contemporary Period

King Norodom Sihanouk

On the verge of defeat in 1945, the Japanese removed their French collaborators and installed a nominally independent Cambodian government under the recently crowned young king, Norodom Sihanouk.

France reimposed its protectorate in early 1946 but allowed the Cambodians to draft a constitution and to form political parties.

Soon afterward, fighting erupted throughout Indochina as nationalist groups, some with Communist ideologies, struggled to win independence from France.

Most of the fighting took place in Vietnam, in a conflict known as the First Indochina War (1946-1954).

In Cambodia, Communist guerrilla forces allied with Vietnamese Communists gained control of much of the country. However, King Sihanouk, through skillful maneuvering, managed to gain Cambodia's independence peacefully in 1953, a few months earlier than Vietnam.

The Geneva Accords of 1954, which marked the end of the First Indochina War, acknowledged Sihanouk's government as the sole legitimate authority in Cambodia.

V. Modern State

Sihanouk's campaign for independence sharpened his political skills and increased his ambitions.

In 1955, he abdicated the throne in favor of his father to pursue a full-time political career, free of the constitutional constraints of the monarchy.

In a move aimed at dismantling Cambodia's fledgling political parties, Sihanouk inaugurated a national political movement known as the SangkumReastrNiyum (People's Socialist Community), whose members were not permitted to belong to any other political group.

The Sangkum won all the seats in the national elections of 1955, benefiting from Sihanouk's popularity and from police brutality at many polling stations. Sihanouk served as prime minister of Cambodia until 1960, when his father died and he was named head of state.

Sihanouk remained widely popular among the people but was brutal to his opponents.

In the late 1950s the Cold War (period of tension between the United States and its allies and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or USSR, and its allies) intensified in Asia.

In this climate, foreign powers, including the United States, the USSR, and China, courted Sihanouk. Cambodia's importance to these countries stemmed from events in neighboring Vietnam, where tension had begun to mount between a Communist regime in the north and a pro-Western regime in the south.

The USSR supported the Vietnamese Communists, while the United States opposed them, and China wanted to contain Vietnam for security reasons. Each of the foreign powers hoped that Cambodian support would bolster its position in the region.

Sihanouk pursued a policy of neutrality that drew substantial economic aid from the competing countries.

In 1965, however, Sihanouk broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. At the same time, he allowed North Vietnamese Communists, then fighting the Vietnam War against the United States and the South Vietnamese in southern Vietnam, to set up bases on Cambodian soil.

As warfare intensified in Vietnam, domestic opposition to Sihanouk from both radical and conservative elements increased.

The Cambodian Communist organization, known as the Workers Party of Kampuchea (later renamed the Communist Party of Kampuchea, or CPK), had gone underground after failing to win any concessions at the Geneva Accords, but now they took up arms once again.

As the economy became unstable, Cambodia became difficult to govern single-handedly.

In need of economic and military aid, Sihanouk renewed diplomatic relations with the United States. Shortly thereafter, in 1969, U.S. president Richard Nixon authorized a bombing campaign against Cambodia in an effort to destroy Vietnamese Communist sanctuaries there.

VI. Khmer Republic

In March 1970 Cambodia's legislature, the National Assembly, deposed Sihanouk while he was abroad.

The conservative forces behind the coup were pro-Western and anti-Vietnamese. General Lon Nol, the country's prime minister, assumed power and sent his poorly equipped army to fight the North Vietnamese Communist forces encamped in border areas.

Lon Nol hoped that U.S. aid would allow him to defeat his enemies, but American support was always geared to events in Vietnam.

In April U.S. and South Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia, searching for North Vietnamese, who moved deeper into Cambodia.

Over the next year, North Vietnamese troops destroyed the offensive capacity of Lon Nol's army.

In October 1970 Lon Nol inaugurated the Khmer Republic. Sihanouk, who had sought asylum in China, was condemned to death despite his absence.

By that time, Chinese and North Vietnamese leaders had persuaded the prince to establish a government in exile, allied with North Vietnam and dominated by the CPK, whom Sihanouk referred to as the Khmer Rouge (French for "Red Khmers").

In 1975, despite massive infusions of U.S. aid, the Khmer Republic collapsed, and Khmer Rouge forces occupied Phnom Penh.

The United States continued bombing Cambodia until the Congress of the United States halted the campaign in 1973.

By that time, Lon Nol's forces were fighting not only the Vietnamese but also the Khmer Rouge. The general lost control over most of the Cambodian countryside, which had been devastated by U.S. bombing.

The fighting severely damaged the nation's infrastructure and caused high numbers of casualties. Hundreds of thousands of refugees flooded into the cities.

In 1975, despite massive infusions of U.S. aid, the Khmer Republic collapsed, and Khmer Rouge forces occupied Phnom Penh. Three weeks later, North Vietnamese forces achieved victory in South Vietnam.

Democratic Kampuchea Pol Pot Pol Pot is a pseudonym for the Cambodian guerrilla commander SalothSar, who

organized the Communist guerrilla force known as the Khmer Rouge.

The Khmer Rouge ousted General Lon Nol in 1975, establishing a brutal Communist regime that ruled until 1979.

Immediately after occupying Cambodia's towns, the Khmer Rouge ordered all city dwellers into the countryside to take up agricultural tasks.

The move reflected both the Khmer Rouge's contempt for urban dwellers, whom they saw as enemies, and their utopian vision of Cambodia as a nation of busy, productive peasants.

The leader of the regime, who remained concealed from the public, was SalothSar, who used the pseudonym Pol Pot.

The government, which called itself Democratic Kampuchea (DK), claimed to be seeking total independence from foreign powers but accepted economic and military aid from its major allies, China and North Korea.

Khmer Rouge Carnage The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, killed close to 1.7 million people in the mid- to late 1970s.

Without identifying themselves as Communists, the Khmer Rouge quickly introduced a series of far-reaching and often painful socialist programs. The people given the most power in the new government were the largely illiterate rural Cambodians who had fought alongside the Khmer Rouge in the civil war.

DK leaders severely restricted freedom of speech, movement, and association, and forbade all religious practices.

The regime controlled all communications along with access to food and information.

Former city dwellers, now called "new people," were particularly badly treated.

The Khmer Rouge killed intellectuals, merchants, bureaucrats, members of religious groups, and any people suspected of disagreeing with the party.

Millions of other Cambodians were forcibly relocated, deprived of food, tortured, or sent into forced labor.

While in power, the Khmer Rouge murdered, worked to death, or killed by starvation close to 1.7 million Cambodians.

The Khmer Rouge also attacked neighboring countries in an attempt to reclaim territories lost by Cambodia many centuries before.

After fighting broke out with Vietnam (then united under the Communists) in 1977, DK's ideology became openly racist.

Ethnic minorities in Cambodia, including ethnic Chinese and Vietnamese, were hunted down and expelled or massacred. Purges of party members accused of treason became widespread.

People in eastern Cambodia, suspected of cooperating with Vietnam, suffered severely, and hundreds of thousands of them were killed. While in power, the Khmer Rouge murdered, worked to death, or killed by starvation close to 1.7 million Cambodians-more than one-fifth of the country's population.

VII. Present Period

Recent Development

In October 1991 Cambodia's warring factions, the UN, and a number of interested foreign nations signed an agreement in Paris intended to end the conflict in Cambodia.

The agreement provided for a temporary power-sharing arrangement between a United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) and a Supreme National Council (SNC) made up of delegates from the various Cambodian factions.

Prince Norodom Sihanouk, the former king and prime minister of Cambodia, served as president of the SNC.

The Paris accords and the UN protectorate pushed Cambodia out of its isolation and introduced competitive politics, dormant since the early 1950s. UNTAC sponsored elections for a national assembly in May 1993, and for the first time in Cambodian history a majority of voters rejected an armed, incumbent regime.

A royalist party, known by its French acronym FUNCINPEC, won the most seats in the election, followed by the CPP, led by Hun Sen. Reluctant to give up power, Hun Sen threatened to upset the election results.

Under a compromise arrangement, a three-party coalition formed a government headed by two prime ministers; FUNCINPEC's Prince NorodomRanariddh, one of Sihanouk's sons, became first prime minister, while Hun Sen became second prime minister.

In September 1993 the government ratified a new constitution restoring the monarchy and establishing the Kingdom of Cambodia. Sihanouk became king for the second time.

After the 1993 elections, no foreign countries continued to recognize the DK as Cambodia's legal government.

The DK lost its UN seat as well as most of its sources of international aid.

The unrealistic power-sharing relationship between Ranariddh and Hun Sen worked surprisingly well for the next three years, but relations between the parties were never smooth.

The CPP's control over the army and the police gave the party effective control of the country, and it dominated the coalition government. In July 1997 Hun Sen staged a violent coup against FUNCINPEC and replaced Prince Ranariddh, who was overseas at the time, with UngHuot, a more pliable FUNCINPEC figure.

Hun Sen's action shocked foreign nations and delayed Cambodia's entry into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

By the end of 1997, Cambodia was the only nation in the region that was not a member.

Despite the coup, elections scheduled for July 1998 proceeded as planned.

Hundreds of foreign observers who monitored the elections affirmed that voting was relatively free and fair; however, the CPP harassed opposition candidates and party workers before and after the elections, when dozens were imprisoned and several were killed. The election gave the CPP a plurality of votes, but results, especially in towns, where voting could not be dictated by local authorities, indicated that the party did not enjoy widespread popular support.

Prince Ranariddh and another opposition candidate, Sam Rainsy, took refuge abroad and contested the outcome of the election.

In November the CPP and FUNCINPEC reached an agreement whereby Hun Sen became sole prime minister and Ranariddh became president of the National Assembly.

The parties formed a coalition government, dividing control over the various cabinet ministries. In early 1999 the constitution was amended to create a Senate, called for in the 1998 agreement.

These signs that Cambodia's political situation was stabilizing encouraged ASEAN to admit Cambodia to its membership a short time later.

Pol Pot died in 1998, and by early 1999 most of the remaining Khmer Rouge troops and leaders had surrendered. Rebel troops were integrated into the Cambodian army.

In 1999 two Khmer Rouge leaders were arrested and charged with genocide for their part in the atrocities.

Since the Paris Accords of 1991, Cambodia's economic growth has depended on millions of dollars of foreign aid.

Foreign interest in Cambodia has decreased, however, and the country has received diminishing economic assistance. This development, along with the continued lack of openness in Cambodian politics, has made Cambodia's prospects for democratization dim, as well as its chances for sustained economic growth.

HISTORY OF LAOS

I. Pre-history

A landlocked country- Laos is surrounded by lands that is why it doesn’t have coastlines. It is surrounded

by Vietnam, China, Myanmar, Thailand, and Cambodia.

Hoabinhian Hunter-Gatherers were the firstinhabitants- They were austro-asiatic persons who migrated in Laos.- They learned agriculture later on

The Plain of Jars in XiengKhouang plateau - It is one of the oldest relics (2000 years ago) and one of the wonders of the world- Archaelogists said that It was originally a trade route because India and Vietnam

were seen to have the same jars as that in XiengKhouang. A French archeologist, Madeline Colani, said that those jars were funeral jars for they have seen bracelets and iron tools

- Legend about the plain of jars said that the jars were made for brewing alcohol. Mekong River

- Serves as the border of Laos from the other countries sourrounding it.- A backwater river- Believes to be inhabited by a serpent deiti called Ngeuk

II. Kingdom of LanXang LanXang means “a million Elephant”

- Elephants are the means of transportation, as well as engines for war FaNgum

- The first ever king of LanXang who founded the kingfom himself- He fought many battles and reigned good but he was overthrowned when he

started to seduce the wives of his officials and started being ambitious of warfares.- He was an indirect heir to his grandfather, SouvannaKhamphong of MeuangSua

(LuangPrabang). - He was succeeded by his son, Samsenthai

King Samsenthai- Also called Un Heuan- Ruled for 43 years (1372 until 1417)- Had 2 wives (From Ayutthaya and Lan Na, Thailand)- The kingdom was stable in the span of years of his reign and he built many temples and

other buildings. King XainyaChakkaphat- Took the throne after Samsenthai, youngest son of samsenthai- LanXang suffered invasion at his time – the Vietnamese invasion. The invasion was

because of an insult sent by a ruler of XiengKhouang province to the Vietnamese emperor.

King Vixun- Restored the kingdom- He built MahaVihara to house the Phra Bang Palladium- Developed close relation to northern Thailand- His son is Phothisarat and his grandson is Setthathirat King Surinyavongsa- Longest ruler in LanXang Kingdom who ruled for 57 years.

- He had two European Visitors at his time – The merchant Gerrit Van Wusthoff, and the Jesuit missionary Giovanni-Maria Leria.

The fall of LanXang Kingdom- Surinyavongsa only had one heir, but his heir was sentenced to death after being proven

that his son seduced the wife of a senior court official.- No one could succeed the throne that was left by Surinyavongsa so a dispute had

happened- The solution is to divide the kingdom into three- LuangPhrabang, Vientiane, and

Champassak- The three kingdoms were in constant quarrel with each other and they were in weak

state so the Siam easily overrun the three kingdoms. III. Colonization Period

1893 - French seized control of Laos- Laos is blessed with rich natural resources and located strategically that is why they

were prone to colonisation.- French forced the Siams to 1939-1945 (WWII) – Japan Invaded laos- Japan surrendered after WWII and French took control over laos again

Lao Issara (Free Laos) was formed- A nationalist movement- When french reoccupied Laos, the Lao Issara nationalists were exiled to thailand- French unified their territories in laos as a single country, having Sisavangvong as the

head of state. - A partial independence was given to Laos in 1949 and an amnesty for the nationalists

exiled. The Pathet Lao was formed (Lao State) This was a communist movement who had risen under the leadership of Prince

Souphanouvong. 1953 – Full independence as a constitutional monarchy was given by the French. 1962 – The Geneva Agreements- Held in Geneva, Switzerland. This agreement has given peace to Laotians.- Participants in the Geneva Agreement agreed to respect the sovereignity and neutrality

of Laos. 1964-1973 – US aerial bombing in Laos- The US bombing was also known as the “secret war in laos”- The US dropped numerous tons of bombs on the land of Laos.- This US mission is to help the royal lao government against the Pathet Lao. 1975 – Lao People’s Democratic Republic was established- Guided by the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (communist party). - New Economic Mechanism (NEM) reform was launched and it introduced market

incentives and started to decentralizing government economic enterprise.

-IV. Contemporary and modern Laos

1994 – “Friendship bridge” was opened in Mekong- Also called as thai-laofriendship bridge. 1997 - Laos became a member of the ASEAN Laos opened its tourism to diversify their economy. Laos’ relationship to other communist countries continued.- Its economic reliance to the West and to japan has extended Laos remained poor and dependent on other countries despite of many reforms.

HISTORY OF MYANMAR (BURMA)

I. Pre History

The prehistory of Myanmar spanned hundreds of millennia to about 200 B.C. Archaeological findings suggest that Homo erectus lived in the region now known as Burma as early as 750,000 years ago.

The firmest evidence of this is Yuanmou Man—one of the oldest known hominid fossil in China, and thought to be a Homo erectus fossil—found in Yunnan Province of China, which borders Myanmar.

The oldest fossils found in Asia—including Peking Man and Java Man—are Homo Erectus. In 1994, Java Man was dated to be 1.7 million years old.

The earliest archaeological evidence suggests that cultures existed in Burma as early as 11,000 B.C. when a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian people lived along the Irrawaddy River.

Named after the central dry zone sites where most of the early settlement finds are located, the Anyathian period was when plants and animals were first domesticated and polished stone tools appeared in Burma.

A. The Neolithic or New Stone Age When plants and animals were first domesticated and polished stone tools

appeared, is evidenced in Burma by three caves located near Taunggyi at the edge of the Shan plateau that are dated to 10000 to 6000 B.C. About 1500 B.C., people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice, and domesticating chickens and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.

By 500 B.C., iron-working settlements emerged in an area south of present-day Mandalay. Bronze-decorated coffins and burial sites filled with earthenware remains have been excavated.

Archaeological evidence at Samon Valley south of Mandalay suggests rice growing settlements that traded with China between 500 B.C. and 200 A.D.

B. Pondaung A geographical region in Myanmar lying partly in the Sagaing and partly in Magway

Divisions of Myanmar. According to the Myanmar government: “It has become well known worldwide due

to the discovery of fossilized remains of anthropoid primate some years back by both Myanmar and foreign geologists.

After laboratory tests and analysis of their finds and scientific discussions at international forums a consensus has been reached that "Pondaung anthropoid primate fossils are 40 million years older than their Egyptian counterparts which were once considered the oldest".”

The French Professor Jean Jacques wrote in the French newspapers, "Primates fossils that were discovered in Pontaung region in the northwest of the Union of Myanmar revealed that this region was once inhabited by the human beings that dates back about 40 million years ago and thus these fossils were 7 million years older than the fossils that were found in Egypt.”

“Myanmar has found the most reliable proof of 'Human Origin'. Therefore. to trace the human origin. Scientists had to look into the earliest evidence of anthropoid primates. The discovery of many fossilized remains of Pondaung primates within the past few years by French, Japanese, and other international scientists has confirmed the original findings.

II. Kingdoms

A. The Mon Era The Mon probably began migrating into the area in about 3000 BC, and their first

kingdom Suwarnabhumi, was founded around the port of Thaton in about 300 BC. Spoken tradition suggests that they had contact with Buddhism via seafaring as

early as the 3rd century BC, though definitely by the 2nd century BC when they received an envoy of monks from Ashoka.

Much of the Mon's written records have been destroyed through wars. The Mons blended Indian and Mon culture together in a hybrid of the two civilizations. By the mid-9th century, they had come to dominate all of southern Myanmar.

B. The Pyu Era The Pyu arrived in Myanmar in the 7th century and established city kingdoms at

Binnaka, Mongamo, Sri Ksetra, and Halingyi. During this period, Myanmar was part of an overland trade route from China to

India. Chinese sources state that the Pyu controlled 18 kingdoms and describe them as a humane and peaceful people.

The Pyu capital of Halingyi fell to the kingdom of Nanchao in the mid-9th century, ending their period of dominance.

C. The Bagan Kingdom To the north another group of people, the Burmans began infiltrating the area as

well. By 849, they had founded a powerful kingdom centered on the city of Pagan and

filled the void left by the Pyu. The kingdom grew in relative isolation until the reign of Anawrahta (1044 - 77) who successfully unified all of Myanmar by defeating the Mon city of Thaton in 1057.

Consolidation was accomplised under his successors Kyanzittha (1084-1112) and Alaungsithu (1112-1167), so that by the mid-12th century, most of Southeast Asia was under the control of either the Bagan Kingdom or the Khmer empire.

The Bagan kingdom went into decline as more land and resources fell into the hands of the powerful Sangha (monkhood) and the Mongols threatened from the north.

The last true ruler of Bagan, Narathihapate (reigned 1254-87) felt confident in his ability to resist the Mongols and advanced into Yunnan in 1277 to make war upon them. He was thouroughly crushed at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan, and Bagan resistance virtually collapsed. The king was assassinated by his own son, but the dynasty was soon brought to an end in 1289, when the mongols installed a puppet ruler in Myanmar.

D. Inwa and Bago After the collapse of Bagan authority, Myanmar was divided once again. The

Burmans had reestablished themselves at the city of Inwa by 1364, where Bagan culture was revived and a great age of Burmese literature ensued.

The kingdom lacked easily defendable borders, however, and was overrun by the Shan in 1527.

To the south, the Mons reestablished themselves at Bago, and under their king, Dhammazedi (reigned 1472-92), entered a golden age as well, becoming a great center of commerce and Therinwada Buddhism.

E. The Taungoo Dynasty Survivors of the destruction of Inwa eventually established a new kingdom centered

onTaungoo in 1531 led by Tabinshwehti (reigned 1531-50), who once again unified most of Myanmar.

Tabinshwehti's brother-in-law,Bayinnaung (ruled 1551-81) succeeded to the throne and proceeded on a campaign of conquest conquering several states, including Manipur (1560) and even Ayutthaya (1569).

His wars stretched Myanmar to the limits of its resources, however, and both Manipur and Ayutthaya were soon independant once again.

Faced with rebellion by several cities and renewed Portugese incursions, the Tourngoo rulers withdrew from southern Myanmmar and founded a second dynasty at Inwa. Bayinnaung's grandson, Anaukpetlun, once again reunited Myanmar in 1613 and decisively defeated Portuguese attempts to take over Myanmar.

His successor Thalun reestablished the priciples of the old Bagan kingdom, but spent too heavily on religious expenditure and paid to little attention to the

southern part of his kingdom. Encouraged by the French in India, Bago finally rebelled against Inwa, further weakening the state, which fell in 1752.

F. The Konbaung Dynasty A popular Burmese leader named Alaungpaya drove the Bago forces out of northern

Myanmar by 1753, and by 1759 he had once again conquered Bago and southern Myanmar while also regaining control of Manipur. He established his capital at Rangoon.

In 1760, he briefly conquered Tenasserim and marched on Ayutthaya, but his invasion failed and he was killed. His son Hsinbyushin (ruled 1763-76) returned to Ayutthaya in 1766 and had conquered it before the end of the next year.

Even China took notice of Myanmar now, but Hsinbyushinsucessfully repulsed four Chinese invasions between 1766 and 1769. Another of Alaungpaya's sons, Bodawpaya (ruled 1781-1819), lost Ayutthaya, but added Arakan (1784) and Tenasserim (1793) to the kingdom as well. In Jaunary 1824, during the reign of King Bagyidaw (ruled 1819-37), a general named MahaBandula succeeded in conquering Assam, bringing Myanmar face to face with British interests in India.

III. Colonization Period

Under British Colonial Rule Although Burma was at times divided into independent states, a series of monarchs

attempted to establish their absolute rule, with varying degrees of success. Eventually, an expansionist British Government took advantage of Burma's political

instability. After three Anglo-Burmese wars over a period of 60 years, the British completed

their colonization of the country in 1886, Burma was immediately annexed as a province of British India, and the British began to permeate the ancient Burmese culture with foreign elements. Burmese customs were often weakened by the imposition of British traditions.

The British also further divided the numerous ethnic minorities by favoring some groups, such as the Karen, for positions in the military and in local rural administrations.

During the 1920s, the first protests by Burma's intelligentsia and Buddhist monks were launched against British rule.

By 1935, the Students Union at Rangoon University was at the forefront of what would evolve into an active and powerful movement for national independence.

A young law student Aung San, executive-committee member and magazine editor for the Students Union, emerged as the potential new leader of the national movement.

In the years that followed, he successfully organized a series of student strikes at the university, gaining the support of the nation.

War with Britain

In response to the continued conquests of Myanmar, the British and the Siamese joined forces against Myanmar in 1824.

The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) ended in a British victory, and by the Treaty of Yandaboo, Myanmar lost Assam, Manipur, Arakan, and Tenasserim. As the century wore on, the British began to covet the natural resources of Myanmar and wanted to secure their supply route to Singapore.

As a result, they provoked the Second Anglo-Burmese War in 1852, annexing Bago province and renaming it Lower Burma.

The war resulted in a revolution in Myanmar, with King Pagin Min (ruled 1846-52) being replaced by his half-brother, Mindon Min (ruled 1853-78)).

King Mindon tried to modernise the Burmese state and economy to resist British encroachments, and he established a new capital at Mandalay, which he proceeded to fortify. This was not enough to stop the Birtish, however, who claimed that Mindon's son Thibaw Min (ruled 1878-85) was a tyrant intending to side with the French and declared war once again in 1885, conquering the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War.

Japanese Occupation The Japanese occupied Burma at the beginning of World War II. In 1943, Burma

became nominally independent under Japanese control. During the Second World War, Burma was a battleground between the Japanese

Army and the Allies. The Burma and Ledo Roads, linking India to China, were built as a vital supply route

for Chiang Kai-shek in China. Even though it was built with great ingenuity, determination and courage, they were completed late in the war and in the end served little practical purpose.

In December 1941, after a Japanese assault that lasted only a few hours, the Thais surrendered to the Japanese.

During the raid a bomb fell in the main post office but failed to explode. When the Japanese invaded Bangkok they immediately occupied Chinatown (Sampeng) and turned the Chinatown Chamber of Commerce into a command post. The Thais signed a treaty with Japan, allowing the stationing and transit of Japanese troops in exchange for the preservation of Thailand’s sovereignty.

In 1942, the Japanese unexpectedly swept into Burma from Thailand. Some Japanese units entered Burma from the jungles of northwestern Thailand where they had encounters with tigers and elephants.

The Japanese won a string of victories against Chinese and British troops and finally captured the key town of Yenangyaunh near the Burmese oil fields, which the British destroyed before withdrawing.

The only seriously resistance against the Japanese in the Indochina campaign was in Burma, where the American Volunteer Group, better known as the Flying Tigers, shot down dozens of Japanese planes.

The Tigers flew a hundred P-40 fighter planes that were sent to China after the passage of the Lend Lease Act in April, 1941.

IV. Contemporary Period

Burma declared its independence in 1948, the popular sentiment to part with the British was so strong at the time that Burma opted not to join the Commonwealth. Later it became the only country in the world to combine Buddhism with socialism.

After World War II, Britain realized it could establish colonial rule only by force while Aung San promised the possibility of a unified Burma to it fractious tribes.

In January 1947, Britain agreed to give Burma independence after negotiations with Aung San.

According to Lonely Planet: “BogyokeAung San emerged from the haze of war as the country’s natural leader. An early activist for nationalism, then defence minister in the Burma National Army, Aung San was the man to hold the country together through the transition to independence.

When elections were held in 1947, Aung San’s party won an overwhelming majority. But before he could take office, he was assassinated by a rival, along with most of his cabinet. Independence followed in 1948, with Aung San’s protégé U Nu at the helm. Ethnic conflicts raged and chaos ensued.”

The new executive council, which now had increased credibility in the country, began negotiations for Burmese independence, which were concluded successfully in London as the Aung San-Attlee Agreement on 27 January 1947.

The agreement left parts of the communist and conservative branches of the AFPFL dissatisfied, however, sending the Red Flag Communists led by ThakinSoe underground and the conservatives into opposition.

Aung San also succeeded in concluding an agreement with ethnic minorities for a unified Burma at the Panglong Conference on 12 February, celebrated since as 'Union Day'.

Aung San (1915-1947) was Myanmar’s nationalist leader and assassinated hero who was instrumental in securing Myanmar's independence from Great Britain.

Before World War II Aung San was actively anti-British; he then allied with the Japanese during World War II, but switched to the Allies before leading the Myanmar drive for autonomy. The boyish-looking Aung San was a charismatic young leader.

He founded Burma's army, negotiated the terms of Myanmar’s independence and attempted to create a government including all groups.

Six months before Myanmar’s independence, he was assassinated when he was only 32 in July 1947. Aung San is Myanmar’s most venerated figure: the George Washington of Myanmar.

He was very popular in his time and is very popular today. Quotes form his speech and his writing have been used to support to the military government. Sometimes it

seems like half the named streets in Myanmar are named after him and there is a museum devoted to him in Yangon.

Burma was the first nation to successfully break free from the British Empire since the U.S. did so in 1776.

V. Present Period

The currency of Myanmar was demonetized (declared unusable) several times making savings worthless overnight in most cases with little or no compensation.

The reason for the practice was to strike at black market traders who withheld large amounts of currency outside the banking system. To this day people in Myanmar have little faith in the currency or banks and choose to keep their savings in gold, jewelry or real estate.

The 50 and 100 kyat notes were demonetized in May, 1964. This was the first of several demonetizations, ostensibly carried out with the aim of fighting black marketeering.

On November 3, 1985, the 25-, 50-, and 100-kyat notes were demonetized without warning, though the public was allowed to exchange limited amounts of the old notes for new ones. All other denominations then in circulation remained legal tender.

The country’s transition from military rule to representative democracy is complicated by entrenched political and economic interests, religious and ethnic cleavages, and difficult negotiations with an array of armed groups to settle decades-long internal conflicts.

As peace talks drag on, the nation’s parliamentary election, slated to take place in late 2015, threatens to exacerbate tensions within and among groups.

In addition, the constitution unfairly prohibits the main opposition candidate, Nobel Peace Laureate Aung San SuuKyi, from standing for president. Myanmar also faces the imperative to address communal (particularly Buddhist/Muslim) violence intensified by narratives spread on social media and elsewhere that inflame prejudice and violence.

Humanitarian access is still blocked in parts of Karen, Karenni, Shan, Arakan and Kachin State.

Karen and Karenni refugees continue to live restricted lives with a decrease in food supplies.

Land confiscation and land rights abuses have become worse due to government and business encroachment.

HISTORY OF THAILANDI. Pre History

Homo erectus fossils have also been discovered in Thailand. Known as the Lampang man for its discovery in Lampang province, the remains

have been dated to roughly 1,000,000 - 500,000 years ago in the Pleistocene Era. The first evidence of humans living in modern-day Thailand was discovered at Ban

Chiang, near UdonThani in northeastern Thailand; grave sites and artifacts including bronze tools and pottery provide evidence of a society that is thought to have had knowledge of rice cultivation and occupied the area continuously from 2100 to 200 BCE, spanning the Neolithic to the Iron Age.

Thailand first inhabitant were the Mon and Khmer groups.A. 1stMillenium of Common Era

The Tai people scattered across YUnan, Vietnem, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar that resulted into various languages. They inhabited the northernmost reaches of Southeast Asia, between the kingdoms of Nan Zhao, Pyu and Angkor.

B. Important Events in the 2nd Century CE The Srivijaya Empire of Sumatra expanded its reach up the Malaysian

Peninsula into Southern Thailand. To facilitate the trade across the Istmus of Kra, Chiaya, SuratThani and Nakhon

Si Thammarat were founded. C. 6th to 9th Century

Dvaravati, a Mon civilization dwelled on the fertile central plains. Dvaravati was a mysterious civilization because the cities’ established were

surrounded by moats and earthen walls, where NahonPathom and Lopburi were placed as an important religious center.

Dvaravati contributed a well established internal and external trading routes that essential for Thailand development.

Dvaravati left Thailand with a wealth of Buddhist artwork which manifests the great influence Indian culture and religion had on the region.

II. Kingdoms A. Sukhothai Period (1238-1438) first period in Thai Kingdoms that as founded in 1238byKhun Bang KlangThao (Sri

Inthrathit) and KhunPhaMuang, two Thai governors who rebelled against the Khmer and gave independence to the region.

The Kingdom was named by its rulers "the dawn of happiness” Considered to be the Golden Age of Thai Culture The boundary of Sukhothai stretched from Lampang in the north to Vientiane, in

present day Laos and the south to the Malay Peninsula.

During this period, the Thai have a strong good relationship with its neighboring countries

In 1279, after the death of KhunPhaMuang, Ramkhamhaeng King, the third son of Si Inthrahit, ascended to the throne.

Under the Ramkhamhaeng King, Sukhothai had a strong friendship with neighboring China. He organized a writing system which became the basis for writing and eventually developed to be the modern Thai alphabet.

King Ramkamhaeng the Great (c.1278-98), was the most famous King in this time period, who expanded the Kingdom’s border the most.

B. Ayutthaya Period (1351-1767)

Founded by U-Thong King in 1350. Ayutthaya as an island is formed by the gathering of three rivers, the Chao Phraya,

the Pasak, and the Loburi and surrounded by rice terraces. Ayutthya Kings adopted Khmer influences in leadership They used absolute monarchy and preffered to be treated as god-kings (devaraja In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Thai Kings in Ayutthaya became powerful

taking over U-Thong, Lopburi, and Ayutthaya. Ayutthaya’s territory was expanded northward towards Sukhothai and eastward

towards the Khmer capital of Angkor during the reign of King U-Thong and his successor.

During this time, Thai extended its sovereignty and got in conflicts with it neighboring countries.

During the 17th century, Siam started diplomatic relatioms in western Countries in 1767.

Ayutthaya fall was when the Burmese invaded and conquered Ayutthaya after several attempts.

The Burmese did not retain control for a long time. General PhyaTaksin and his followers broke through the Burmese lines and

escaped to Chantaburi. They came back to Chao Phraya river to Ayutthaya and expelled the Burmese

occupation garrison and looted the capital of the city under the Burmese.

C. Thonburi Period (1767-1782)

Built by PhyaTaksin King Taksin has ruled a peaceful country for over 15 years and extended

diplomatic relationship with many countries from overseas including China. Unfortunately, King Taksin, who devoted his life to protect his beloved country, was over stressed from the wars and eventually became insane.

Thonburi collapsed because of the coup in 1782 by General Chakri. King Taksin's achievements have caused prosperity to bestow on him the epithet "the Great"

D. Rattanakosin Period (1782-Present)

King Chakri took over after the death of King Taksin. He was the first King of the Chakri Dynasty as the Rama I, who reigned from 1782 to 1809.

He transferred the capital of Thailand to Bangkok. He built the Grand Palace Rama II continued King Chakri’s work from 1809 to 1824 Rama III, King Nang Klao (1824-1851) reopened relations with western nations

and developed trade with China. Rama III, King Mongkutx (1851-1868) of "The King and I" concluded treaties with

European countries, avoided colonialization and established modern Thailand. He made many social and economic reforms during his reign.

Rama V, King Chulalongkorn (1869-1910) continued his father's tradition of reform, abolishing slavery and improving the public welfare and administrative system.

Why Siam was never conquered by the European?

By 1890 the French were determined to take over all of Siam. In 1893 France pushed into the jungles of what we know as Laos, and since

the Siamese figured out what France was up to, they attacked. France countered attacked the Siamese troops and demanded that Siam give to France all their lands east of the Mekong.

Rama 5, having taken over the country on the death of his father, again appealed to the British for help which was again refused. In fact, Britain was happy with the French grabbing control of Siamese territory due to a new concept known as “The Doctrine of Compensatory Advantage.” Simply put, France would be allowed to take eastern Siam in return for not protesting when the British took over the rest of the Burmese territories.

With France in Laos and Cambodia, and the British in Burma, the British had achieved a regional alignment they were happy with, with Siam forming a buffer state. The British thus told Rama 5 to give in to French demands, but the King refused. This was a difficult thing to do in the face of a much mightier force.

The French, to force the issue, sent their gunboats to Paknam at the entrance to the Chao Praya River and Bangkok. The British sent a note to the King saying that his refusal to give in would result in the “complete extinction of the Siamese national existence.”

Faced with the refusal of Britain to support it, Rama 5 eventually conceded and was forced to give up more territory to the French.

Now the stage was set for the French to take over all of Siam. In 1896 the British and the French foreign ministers met in Paris with the French aiming to take over what was called the Korat Plateau (now called Isaan). In formal talks, the French proposed to divide Siam into two parts. They proposed that the Chao Praya River be the dividing line, and that the French hold all of Siam to the east, and that Britain take all of Siam to the west including all of the peninsular lands down to what is now Malaysia. This would connect the British held territory of Burma to their Straits Settlements (Malaysia and Singapore).

If the British had agreed, all of Isaan and Pattaya would be French and Phuket would be British.

Britain rejected this, wanting to continue with the buffer state so France countered with a second proposal. This new idea was close to the first, with the one distinction being that the Chao Praya River Valley would remain independent.

Since the Siamese weren’t invited to these meetings, the Siamese Ambassador to Europe pulled off a back door lobbying effort, negotiating with the British directly, telling them that the entire country of Siam should be used as a buffer zone. The British finally agreed to this. Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India, wrote about the French “we particularly desire to avoid them as neighbors.”

So in 1896 the two countries signed a treaty saying they would support the independence of Siam against any third party (Russia, and especially Germany, were both nosing around Siam, seeing what parts they could pick off.)

This was a major diplomatic triumph for Siam, which managed to keep its independence although France was determined to take it over. Although Siam had to give up some territory that it had previously held sway over, it managed to retain its freedom, a majority of its land, and al of the land inhabited by Thai language speaking people. (The lands it conceded were mostly Khmer, Malay or Lao).

Of course, the two signatories couldn’t keep their hands to themselves, and so in 1907 France picked off a bit more territory to add to Cambodia (specifically Battambang and SiemRiep), and the British two years later grabbed a bit more land for Malaysia and created the boundary of what is today the border line between Thailand and Malaysia.

Rama VI, King Vajiravudh (1910-1925) introduced educational reforms such as compulsory education and other educational reforms.

Rama VII, King Prajadhipok (1925-1935), during his reign, Thailand changed from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. The king abdicated in 1933 and was succeeded by his nephew.

Rama VIII, King AnandaMahidol (1935-1946), the country's name was changed from Siam to Thailand with the advent of democratic government in 1939.

On December 10, 1932, His Majesty King Prajadhipok signed Thailand first constitution and thus ended 700 years of Thailand absolute monarchy. In spite of a number of successive constitutions that followed in the span of just over half a century, the basic concepts of constitutional government and monarchy laid down in the 1932 constitution have remained unaltered.

In 1939, Siam changes its name to Thailand “Land of the Free”. In 1946, King Ananda was assassinated. Rama IX, King BhumibolAdulyadej (1946- present) is the current monarch in

Thailand. August 8, 1967 ASEAN was established in Bangkok, by the five original countries,

Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.

III. ContemporaryPeriod to Present (1970-2015)

In 1973, Student revolution destroyed the military government, and caused to have free elections but resulted in a unstable government.

In 1976, the Military takes over again in the government. In 1978, A New Constitution is promulgated. In 1980, General PremTinsulanonda assumes power but gave it up on 1983 and

re-elected in 1986. In 1988, General ChatichaiChoonhaven won over the election and became in

charge. In 1991, Military coup. AnandPanyarachun, a civilian became the prime minister In 1992, General SuchindaKraprayoon was elected in March election replacing

Anand. On September election, ChuanLeekpai was chosen to be the prime minister.

In 1995, government collapses. BanharnSilpa-archa, of the Thai Nation party,

elected prime minister.

In 1996, Banharn's government resigns, accused of corruption.

ChavalitYongchaiyudh of the New Aspiration party wins elections.

In 1997, Asian financial crisis: The baht falls sharply against the dollar, leading to

bankruptcies and unemployment. The IMF steps in. ChuanLeekpai becomes

prime minister.

In 1998, tens of thousands of migrant workers are sent back to their countries of

origin. Chuan involves the opposition in his government in order to push through

economic reforms.

In 1999, economy begins to pick up again. Thai media highlight high cost of drug

treatments for Aids and HIV. Thailand begins to put pressure on drugs companies

to find ways to make the drugs cheaper.

In January 2000, new Thai Love Thai party wins elections after partial re-run of

poll. Leader ThaksinShinawatra forms coalition government.

In June 2001, Burma-Thailand border crossing, which was closed after clashes

between the two countries' troops in February, re-opens after Thaksin visits

Burma.

In May 2002, Burma closes border with Thailand again after Thai army fires shells

into Burma during battle between Burmese army and ethnic Shan rebels. Border

reopens in October.

In January 2003, more than 500 Thai nationals are evacuated from Cambodia

amid angry protests after remarks attributed to by a Thai actress that Cambodia

"stole" its AngokrWat temple complex from Thailand.

In February 2003, controversial crackdown on drugs starts; more than 2,000

suspects are killed. The government blames many of the killings on criminal

gangs; rights groups say extra-judicial killings were encouraged by the

authorities.

In 2004, From January to March, martial law is imposed in largely-Muslim south

after more than 100 killed in a wave of attacks blamed on Islamic militants.

In February 2004, more than 100 Islamic militants die in coordinated attacks on

police bases in the south.

In October 2004, 85 Muslim protesters die, many from suffocation, while in army

custody following violence at a rally in the south. An enquiry concludes they were

not killed deliberately.

In December 2004, thousands of people - both Thais and foreign tourists - are

killed as when a massive tsunami, triggered by an undersea earthquake off the

coast of Sumatra, devastates communities on the south-west coast, including the

resort of Phuket.

Policeman-turned-tycoon ThaksinShinawatra transformed Thai politics but was

ousted in a military coup

In 2005, March, ThaksinShinawatra begins a second term as PM after his party

wins February's elections by a landslide.

In July of 2005, the violent unrest continues in the south, Prime Minister Thaksin

is given new powers to counter suspected Muslim militants in the region. In

November the death toll in violence since January 2004 tops 1,000.

In October 2005, Thailand redoubles efforts to fight bird flu as fresh outbreaks of

the disease are reported.

In 2006, April to May , a snap election called by the PM amid mass rallies against

him is boycotted by the opposition and is subsequently annulled, leaving a

political vacuum. The PM takes a seven-week break from politics.

In August of 2006, Prime Minister ThaksinShinawatra accuses several army

officers of plotting to kill him after police find a car containing bomb-making

materials near his house.

On September 19, 2006, military leaders stage a bloodless coup while Prime

Minister ThaksinShinawatra is at the UN General Assembly. Retired General

SurayudChulanont is appointed as interim prime minister in October.

January 2007, martial law is lifted in more than half of the country.

On April 2007, the first draft of a new constitution is approved by a committee

appointed by the military administration.

On May 2007, Ousted Prime Minister ThaksinShinawatra's Thai Rak Thai party is

banned. Thousands of soldiers are put on alert.

August 2007, voters approve a new, military-drafted constitution in a

referendum.

December 2007, general elections mark the first major step towards a return to

civilian rule, democracy resolved. The People Power Party (PPP), seen as the

reincarnation of Thaksin's Thai Rak Thai (Thais Love Thais) party, wins the most

votes.

The PreahVihear temple sparked a border standoff with Cambodia

On February 2008, Thailand eturn to civilian rule. SamakSundaravej of the

Thaksin-linked People Power Party (PPP) is sworn in as prime minister. Ousted

premier ThaksinShinawatra returns from exile.

July 2008, PojamanShinawatra, the wife of former prime minister

ThaksinShinawatra, is found guilty of fraud and sentenced to three years in jail.

She is granted bail pending an appeal.

August 2008 - Thaksin flees to Britain with his family after failing to appear in

court to face corruption charges.

September 2008 - Opposition protesters occupy Bangkok's main government

complex and begin mass anti-government protests calling for the resignation of

Prime Minister SamakSundaravej.

Constitutional Court dimisses PM Sundaravej for violating a conflict of interest

law by hosting two television cooking shows while in office. SomchaiWongsawat

chosen by parliament as the new prime minister, but the street protests against

the PPP government continue.

October 2008, Thai troops shoot dead two Cambodian soldiers in a firefight on

the disputed stretch of the two countries' border, near the PreahVihear temple.

Thai Supreme Court gives fugitive former PM ThaksinShinawatra a two-year jail

sentence after finding him guilty of corruption over a land deal.

The UN voiced concern over the fate of Hmong repatriated from Thailand

November 2008, Tens of thousands of opposition People's Alliance for

Democracy supporters rally around parliament in Bangkok and blockade

Thailand's main airports in "final battle" to topple the government.

December 2008, Prime Minister SomchaiWongsawat is forced from office by a

Constitutional Court ruling disbanding the governing People Power Party for

electoral fraud and barring its leaders from politics for five years.

Opposition leader AbhisitVejjajiva forms a coalition to become Thailand's new

prime minister, the country's third new leader in three months.

March-April - Supporters of former PM ThaksinShinawatra hold mass rallies

against the government's economic policies.

April 2009, Continuing unrest forces the cancellation of an ASEAN summit after

anti-government protesters storm the summit venue in the resort of Pattaya.

PM AbhisitVejjajiva moves troops into Bangkok to end an opposition protest sit-

in. More than 120 people injured in resulting clashes.

June 2009, Leaders of the protest group that helped topple ThaksinShinawatra

apply to register themselves as the New Politics Party.

November 2009, Row with Cambodia grows over the appointment of

ThaksinShinawatra as an economic adviser to the Cambodian government.

Cambodia takes over Thai-owned air traffic control firm.

December 2009, Up to 20,000 Thaksin supporters rally in Bangkok to demand

fresh elections. MrThaksin addressed them by video-link.

Thailand deports about 4,000 ethnic Hmong back to communist-ruled Laos,

deeming them to be economic migrants. The UN and US expressed concern

about their possible reception in Laos.

February 2010, Supreme Court strips MrThaksin's family of half of its wealth after

ruling that he illegally acquired $1.4bn during his time as PM. Security forces

placed on high alert amid fear of clashes with Thaksin supporters.15.

March-May 2010, Tens of thousands of Thaksin supporters - in trademark red

shirts - paralyse parts of central Bangkok with months-long protests calling for

PM Abhisit's resignation and early elections. Troops eventually storm the

protesters' barricades in a bid to break the deadlock and end the

demonstrations. The death toll in the violence - the worst in the country's

modern history - is put at 91.

August, Thailand resumes diplomatic ties with Cambodia after Phnom Penh

announces that ousted Thai PM ThaksinShinawatra is stepping down as its

economic advisor.

Thailand's polarised politics has led to waves of mass protest

November 2010, Thailand extradites Russian national Viktor Bout to the US on

charges of arms dealing, after months of legal wrangling. Russia says the move is

a "glaring injustice" and politically motivated.

January 2011- Tensions rise as Cambodia charges two Thai citizens with spying

after arresting them for crossing the disputed border.

February - After an exchange of fire across the Thai-Cambodian border, the two

countries agree to allow Indonesian monitors access to the area to prevent

further clashes.

April - Eighteen people are left dead after border dispute over land near the

ancient PreahVihear temple on the Thai-Cambodian sparks armed clashes.

July - The pro-ThaksinPheu Thai party wins a landslide victory in elections.

YingluckShinawatra - the sister of MrThaksinShinawatra - becomes prime

minister.

October - The government introduces a rice subsidy scheme with the aim of

ensuring that farmers - who form the main part of Pheu Thai's social base in the

rural north of Thailand - receive a guaranteed price for their rice crop. The

scheme causes government debt to soar, and the resulting increase in the price

of Thai rice causes the country to lose its rank as the world's number one rice

exporter.

2012, June - Anti-government yellow-shirts blockade parliament to prevent

debate on proposed reconciliation bill aimed at ending six-tear-old political

tensions. Group fears that a proposed amnesty would enable the return of

ousted PM ThaksinShinawatra.

November - Police disperse 10,000-strong protest in Bangkok calling for

overthrow of Prime Minister YingluckShinawatra.

New Pitak Siam (Protect Thailand) movement led by retired Gen

BoonlertKaewprasit unites yellow-shirts and others who see the government as a

puppet of exiled former PM ThaksinShinawatra.

December - Former Prime Minister AbhisitVejjajiva is charged with responsibility

for the death of a taxi driver shot by troops during anti-government protests in

Bangkok in 2010.

2013, February - Government, Muslim separatists in south sign first-ever peace

talks deal.

April - Constitutional Court blocks moves by ruling Pheu Thai party to amend

2007 post-coup constitution.

June - Government cuts guaranteed price for rice, provoking an angry reaction

from farmers and protests in Bangkok.

PM YingluckShinawatra reshuffles cabinet for fifth time, sacking commerce

minister responsible for rice price subsidy cut and taking on defence portfolio

herself.

July - Government, Muslim separatists in south agree to Ramadan ceasefire.

November - Tens of thousands of opposition supporters protest in Bangkok

against a proposed political amnesty bill that critics say would allow ousted

leader ThaksinShinawatra - the brother of Prime Minister YingluckShinawatra - to

return to Thailand without facing jail.

December - In response to opposition pressure, PM YingluckShinawatra

announces that early elections will be held in February 2014 but rejects calls for

her to step down in the meantime.

Former prime ministerAbhisitVejjajiva charged with murder over 2010

crackdown on demonstrators in which more than 90 people died. MrAbhisit,

leader of the opposition Democrat Party, denies the charges and is granted bail.

2014, February - General elections go ahead but the Constitutional Court

declares them invalid because of disruption by the opposition.

May - Constitutional court orders Prime Minister YingluckShinawatra and several

ministers out of office over alleged irregularities in appointment of security

adviser.

June - King Bhumibol gives his assent to an interim constitution enacted by the

junta and giving the military sweeping powers.

August - Coup leader General Prayuth Chan-ocha is made prime minister.

November - Finance Minister SommaiPhasee says Thai elections unlikely until

2016.

Parliament bans the trade in babies born through surrogate pregnancies,

following growing public opposition to the practice.

December - Crown Prince Vajiralongkorn revokes royally-assigned family name of

his wife, following the arrest of several of her relatives in a corruption case.

2015, March - Coup-appointed Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-ocha ends martial

law, continues to rule by executive order.

May - Military government to hold referendum on new constitution in early

2016, delaying move to restore democracy.Ex-Prime Minister YingluckShinawatra

pleads not guilty at start of trial on charges of negligence over rice subsidy

scheme. She faces up to 10 years in prison if found guilty.

August - Terrorist bomb attack kills 20 people at Hindu Erawan shrine, Bangkok.

HISTORY OF VIETNAMI. Pre History

According to legend, a descendant of a mythical Chinese ruler was the first ruler of the Vietnamese people. His name was King De Minh.

Lac Long Quan (Lac Dragon Lord) is said to be the ancestor of the Hung kings.

II. Kingdoms

A. Hong Bang Dynasty – 2879-258 BC Ruled by the Hung kings, an organized kingdom called Van Lang emerged.

The Lac Lords somehow had control over people living in villages and small communities.

Eighteen generations of Hung kings reigned before being overthrown by ThucPhan.

B. Thuc Dynasty – 257-179 BC The Hong Dynasty ended when ThucPhan invaded Van Lang and united it with his

kingdom of Thuc and called it Au Lac, and renamed himself King An Duong. Au Lac ceased to exist in around 207 BC, as it was incorporated by Trieu Da into his

kingdom of Nam Viet.

C. Trieu Dynasty – 207-111 BC Nam Viet is ruled by Trieu Da, a Chinese general. His kingdom covered part of Southern

China and Northern Vietnam. After almost a hundred years, Nam Viet is conquered by the Chinese through Chinese

emperor Wudi.

D. Chinese Domination – 111 BC-40 AD The Vietnamese were introduced to the advanced civilization, culture, language, and

customs of China.

E. 2nd Century AD The Indian influenced kingdom of Champa arose.

F. Trung Sisters – 40-43 AD The Trung sisters led a rebellion against the Chinese. The revolt was temporarily

successful, and the older sister established herself as a ruler. The Chinese reciprocated the attacks, and Vietnam was again under the rule of the

Chinese. The Trung sisters killed themselves.

G.Ngo Dynasty – 939-967

Ngo Quyen defeated the Chinese in the battle of the Bach Dang River and founded the Ngo dynasty.

He reclaimed Vietnamese independence and he chose Lo Coa as his capital.

H.Dinh Dynasty – 968-980

Dinh dynasty is under a political leader named Dinh Bo Linh, who unified the country and renamed it Dai Co Viet or Great Viet State.

I. Early Le Dynasty – 980-1009

Le Hoan is a powerful general who took over after Dinh Bo Linh’s death. He deposed the heir to the throne, Din Bo Linh’s six year old son and married his widow.

The commander of the palace guard named Ly Cong Uan took over and built the Ly Dynasty, one of the greatest dynasties in Vietnam.

J. Ly Dynasty –1009-1225 Ly Cong Uan took the name of Ly Thai To and moved the capital of Vietnam to Hanoi in

1010. The country thrived and developed growth and prosperity. During the first century of Ly

dynasty, warfare between China and Champa were apparent. The second half was relatively peaceful which allowed the rulers to impose a Buddhist ruling tradition.

Thanh-Tong, the third Ly emperor renamed the country Dai Viet meaning Greater Viet.

K. Tran Dynasty –1125-1400 Ly Dynasty was succeeded by Tran dynasty, its first emperor named Tran Thai Tong. Dai Viet’s clash with Champa and China was still apparent. In 1257, 1284, and 1287, the armies of Kublai Khan attacked Vietnam. The effects of the wars affected Dai Viet severely, leading to the overthrow of the Tran

dynasty in 1400.

L. Ho Dynasty – 1400-1407 In 1400, General Ho Quy-ly proclaimed himself founder of the Ho dynasty. His reforms

were unpopular with the people, and China took it as a chance to seize the throne. In 1406, Dai Viet is once again a province of China, and was heavily exploited. Loi, a descendant of the Le family together with his army attacked the Chinese in 1418.

After ten years, he was able to eradicate them and reestablish the Le dynasty.

M. Later Le Dynasty –1428-1788 Under the Later Le dynasty founded by Le Thai To, Dai Viet was proclaimed as an

independent countryand provided with reforms. Le Thanh Tong, an emperor of the Later Le dynasty, divided Vietnam into 13 provinces

or circuits, which were ruled by government officials who underwent Civil Service examinations every three years.

Under the Later Le Dynasty, the kingdom of Champa was also defeated in 1471. After the death of Le Thanh Tong in 1497, the power of Le dynasty declined.

N. Mac Dynasty – 1527-1592 In 1527, Mac Dang Dung usurped the throne and the Le Dynasty was overthrown by the

Mac family. After a long continuing battle between the forces Trinh and Mac, Mac finally succumbed

to the superior power of Trinh, putting an end to Mac’s reign over the country.

The remaining descendant of the Le dynasty holds the power to the throne with the help of Nguyen Kim.

Nguyen Kim is assassinated, and his son-in-law Trinh Tung continues his military command.

The Le dynasty is figuratively restored to power, but it is the Nguyens who hold the power.

The Trinh family held north, the Nguyen family held south. The ongoing battle of the two families for political power continues, which left the

empire weak, corrupted, and the people angry. This lead to the Tay Son rebellion, led by the Nguyen brothers.

O. Tay Son Uprising – 1771-1802 The Tay Son rebellion led by the three Nguyen brothers Nguyen Nac, Nguyen Lu, and

Nguyen Hue (not related to the Nguyen family) Gradually, the brothers took territories from both the Nguyen and Trinh lords. The entire clan of Nguyen was massacred, except for Nguyen Anh who managed to

escape to Siam. By 1786, the Tay Son army led an attack on Trinh in the North and defeated them. Tay

Son army seizes the capital and Nguyen Hue declares himself Emperor QuangTrung.

P. Nguyen Dynasty and Colonization of the French – 1802-1945 In 1802, with the assistance of the French, Nguyen Anh successfully defeats the Tay Son

and proclaims himself as emperor, taking up the name Gia Long. The capital is moved to Hue. Gia Long changed the name of the country from Dai Viet to Nam Viet. Gia Long adopted

the ways of China, the capital Hue modeled after Beijing. Men and women were required to dress like Chinese citizens and the issued law code

followed that of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) model. Nguyen dynasty is the last Vietnamese dynasty.

III. Colonization of the French

In the late 19th Century, Vietnam became a French colony. In 1858, Tourane (Da Nang) was under the control of the French. In 1859, Saigon was captured by the French. In 1862, Emperor TuDuc signed an agreement to cede control of three provinces around

Saigon. In 1883, North and Central Vietnam were forced to become French protectorates. In 1887, Indochina was formed. Indochina is comprised of Cochin China, Tonkin, Annam,

Laos and Cambodia. In 1930, the Indochinese Communist Party was formed.

In 1940, Germany defeated France during the Second World War, and Japan invaded Vietnam.

In 1941, Viet Minh orthe League for the Independence of Vietnam was founded. 1945: Ho Chi Minh writes a letter seeking help from US President Roosevelt, but was ignored. March:The Japanese ousted the French and took over Vietnam. Bao Dai is placed as the puppet Emperor of the Japanese. April: President Roosevelt dies and is replaced by Harry Truman. August: Japan surrenders to the Allies. 1946: Ho Chi Minh signed a treaty with the French. The treaty indicates that French troops are allowed to return in Vietnam provided that

they will recognize Vietnam as a free state. December: The Viet Minh attack the French. The First Indochina war begins. 1947: Operation Lea 1949: Bao Dai signs the Elysee Agreement 1950: The People’s Republic of China recognizes the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. 1954: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu 1963:A military coup is launched, removing Ngo Dinh Diem from power. The day after,

he was executed. 1964: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 1965: Viet Cong attacks 1968: Tet Offensive 1973: Ceasefire 1975: Saigon captured by North Vietnam

IV. Present Vietnam

1976: Vietnam is officially reunified and called the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. 1994: The US lifts the economic embargo it placed on Vietnam in 1974. 1995: Vietnam joins the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). 2000: Vietnam opens a stock exchange. 2006: Vietnam becomes a member of the World Trade Organization.

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