(I) Global Education Reform for the 21st Century

北京师范大学北京师范大学教育研究方法讲座系列教育研究方法讲座系列

Lecture 9Explaining Big Structures and Large Process

Global Education Reforms: In Comparative-Historical Perspective

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(I) Global Education Reform

for the 21st Century

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What are the natures and features of HKSAR education reform

Why is there such an education reform at this point in time in HKSAR?

What are the natures and features of education reform in PRC?

Why is there such an education reform at this point in time in PRC?

Why are there education reforms in the US, UK, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, and PRC at the turn of the century?

?

The Statement of the Problem

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What are the similarities and differences in these education reforms

Global convergence or divergence of education reform: A New Institutionalist Perspective

What are the natures and features of HKSAR education reform?

The Statement of the Problem

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Education Reform in the UK Lifetime learning: A policy framework (1996) The learning age: A renaissance for new Britain (1998)

Education Reform in the US Goal 2000 Act, 1994 A nation learning: Version for the 21st Century (1997) No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

Education Reform in Canada Knowledge Matters: Skills and learning for Canadians (2002) Achieving excellence: Investing in people, knowledge and

opportunity (2002)

Education Reforms as Phenomena of Global Convergence: Lifelong Learning…

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Education Reform in Australia National Board of Employment, Education and Training

(1996) Lifelong learning ―― Key issues Dept. of Education, Science and Training (1998) Learning

for life: Review of higher education financing and policy (1998)

Dept. of Education, Science and Training (2003) Lifelong learning in Australia

Education Reform in South Korea Ministry of Education Adapting Education to the

Information Age (2000-2004)


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South Korea

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Education Reform in Singapore: Education for Learning Society in the 21st Century (2000)

Education Reform in Taiwan 教育改革行動方案 , 1998

Education Reform in HKSAR Education Commission (2000) Education for Life and

Education through Life


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教育改革行動方案

行政院八十七年五月廿九日

台八十七教字第二六六九八號核定

壹、前言政府為有效推動教育改革工作，於教育部召開第七次全國教育會議之後，在八十三年九月二十一日成立「行政院教育改革審議委員會」，該委員會歷經兩年審慎研議，於八十五年十二月二日提出「教育改革總諮議報告書」，揭櫫教育改革五大方向：一、教育鬆綁；二、帶好每位學生；三、暢通升學管道；四、提升教育品質；五、建立終身學習社會，及八大改革之重點項目。嗣後，教育部融合「教育改革總諮議報告書」之具體建議，及「中華民國教育報告書－邁向二十一世紀的教育遠景」、「中華民國身心障礙教育報告書」、「中華民國原住民教育報告書」等長期研議之施政構想，於八十六年七月提出「教育改革總體計畫綱要」，並根據三十大項計畫綱要，研提具體的中長程計畫十八種、實施方案十二種，以為全面推動落實教育改革工作之依據。惟因整體教育改革工程，所涉範疇含蓋教育部整體業務，為明教育改革重點，乃根據行政院教育改革推動小組第六次會議之決議，綜合「教育改革總諮議報告書」及「教育改革總體計畫綱要」，擇取重點關鍵項目，彙成本行動方案，一以整合行政院各相關部會之力量戮力促成，二為嗣後考核教改成效之指標。

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OECD (1991) The lifelong learners in the 1990s. OECD (1996) Lifelong learning for all. OECD (2001) Education policy analysis 2001. UNESCO (1996) Learning: The Treasure from within. European Commission (1995) Teaching and learning:

Towards the learning society


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Methodological Assumptions of Convergence of Global Education Reform

Paradigm convergence of education reforms rather than simple convergence of education reforms (Ball, 1999)

By simple convergence, Ball refers to "exactly the same policies being invoked in very different national settings." (Ball, 1999, p. 198) As for paradigm convergence of education reform, it refers to "invocation of policies with common underlying principles, similar operational mechanism and similar first and second order effects: first order effects in terms of their impact on practitioners, practice and institutional procedures and second order effects in terms of social justice—patterns of access, opportunity and outcome." (Ball, 1999, p. 198)

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Conditional or functional causality rather than deterministic or nomological causality


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Conditional or functional causality rather than deterministic or nomological causality

Specification framework of global effects on education reforms


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Dale has identified seven mechanisms of external effect on national policy. Two of them are what Dale characterized as 'traditional' or 'orthodox' mechanism. They are 'policy borrowing' and ‘policy learning'. The other five are mechanism "could be seen to be associated, though not exclusively, with globalization." (Dale, 1999, p.5) These mechanisms are 'harmonization', 'dissemination', 'standardization', 'installing interdependence' and 'imposition'.

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Globalization as a process of compression of time and space

Global-Information Age and the Governance of the Global-Competition State

Definition of Globalization: In connection to the penetrating, reconfiguring and converging capacities of IT, the globalization at the end of the twentieth century has outgrown its ancestors in bridging if not annulling the temporal and spatial distances between human societies and cultures around the globe. David Harvey (1989) in The Condition of Postmodernity defines

globalization as “time-space compression”. It signifies “processes that so revolutionize the objective qualities of space and time that we are force to alter … how we represent the world to ourselves.” (p. 240)


Definition of Globalization: … Anthony Giddens (1994) indicates that “globalization is really about

the transformation of space and time. I define it as action at distance, and relate its intensifying over recent years to the means of instantaneous global communication and mass transportation.” (1994, p. 4)

Zygmunt Bauman (1998): Bauman defines globalization as “annulment of temporal/spatial distances” (1998, p.18).

Manuel Castells (1996): Castells defines globalization as a process "to overcome limits of time and space." (Castells, 1996, p. 92-93) As a result, it enables human institutions, such as the economy, and organization, such as the firm, "to work as a unit in real time on a planetary scale." (Castells, 1996, p. 92)


Definition of Globalization: … Ulrich Beck (2000): "Globalization…denotes the process through

which sovereign national states are criss-cross and undermined by transnational actors with varying prospects of power, orientations, identities and networks." (Beck, 2000, p. 11) Beck’s definition is derived from his two conceptions of modern society, namely the first and second modern societies


Castells underlines two essential consequences of globalization. They are Space of flow: Manuel Castells (1996) underlines that one of the

profound features brought about by the global-informational infrastructure is the separation of simultaneous social practices from physical contiguity, that is time-sharing social practices are no long embedded in locality of close proximity and/or within finite boundary. As a result, the traditional notion of space of places has been transformed into space of flows. In informational network, such as the internet, "no place exists by itself, since the positions are defined by flows." There is practically no boundary, no concepts of center or periphery, no beginning or end. It is all but flows.


Castells underlines two essential consequences of globalization. They are Timeless time: Castells also underlines that the global-Informational

infrastructure has also transform the conception of time in human society. Time is no longer comprehended in terms of localities around the globe according to the international time-zones. Human activities around the global can be coordinated "simultaneously" in disregard of conception of local time, such as morning, evening, late at night, etc. Furthermore, with the aid of IT, the conventional linear, sequential, diachronic concepts of time has been disturbed. "Timing becoming synchronic inflate horizon, with no beginning, no end, no sequence." (Castells, 1996, p. 74)


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Globalization as a process of compression of time and space

Economic consequence The rise of informational-global economy Polarization of globally mobile capitalists and locally

immobile workers The constitution of network enterprise

Internal organization: Flat and flexible External organization: Lean by means of outsourcing

The demand of flexible workers


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Political consequence The shrinking of the sovereignty of nation-states The collapse of the economic nationalism The transformation of WWII welfare state to global-

competition state The rise of the New-Right and the public sector reform

Deregulation Privatization Marketization


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Cultural consequence Detraditionalization and the advent of the post-

traditional society The commodification of culture The rise of consumerism


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Social consequence Decentering of the modern self

From pilgrim to stroller, vagabond, tourist and player The constitution of flexible family Identities based on cultural-spatial communities was

replaced by identity built on virtual communities and self-selecting specialized communities


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Education Reforms as Governance Project of the Global-Competition State

Education reform as economic project of competition state to solve the economic crisis elicited by the erosion of the economic nationalism and to enhance nation competitiveness in global-informational economy and to elevate the employability of the national labor force

Education reform as part of the administrative project of competition state for reforming the public sectors of the welfare state, in which public schooling system is the major sector

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Education reform as political project of global-competition state for nationally inclusive and politically empowering citizenship in post-materialist politicking bases

Education reform as cultural project of global-competition state to resolve the cultural nihilism and moral panic of consumerism and postmodernism

Education reform as social-solidarity project of global-competition state to re-constitute social solidarity among de-centering selves and flexible and virtual communities.

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Education reform as social-class project of competition state for socially inclusion and bridging digital divisions between the globally mobile and the locally immobile, the have and the have-not, IT literate and the illiterate, etc.

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Instrumental economicism: The underlying principle Dominance of instrumental rationality: Extrinsic and

instrumental value of competitiveness replaces intrinsic and substantive value of education

Economicism: Education is subject to the prescription of economicism in all aspect

Lifelong Learning of Instrumental Economicism

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Quasi-market mechanism: The Institutional/operational mechanism The quasi-market restructuring: Restructuring project of

education system by transforming state controlled and professional-led schooling structure into consumer-led schooling system which resembles as much as possible the neo-liberal free market

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Lifelong Learning of Instrumental Economicism Quasi-market mechanism: The operational mechanism

Cult of “Surveillance-Evaluationism”: Constituting of the medium of exchange in quasi-market: of education Standardization: National Curriculum and Assessment,

National Standards, performance indicators, benchmarking Classification and hierarchization: School League Table,

School Report Card, Failing school list… Accountability and auditing: Establishment of Office for

Standards in Education in UK in 1992 and Implementation of school inspection

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Quasi-market mechanism: The operational mechanism Hegemony of “Discipline-Managerialism”: Constitution of

the Supply side of the quasi market of education Devolution and de-regulation of public schools From management by input and process to management by

output Hegemony of performativity The constitution of entrepreneurial school and education by

publicity


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Quasi-market mechanism: The operational mechanism The dominance of Consumer Sovereignty: Constitution of

the demand side of the quasi market of education Constitution of market information and signals for

consumers: Publicizing school performance information Constitution of consumer choice

• Amalgamation of public and private school-sectors, e.g. voucher system

• Privatizing public schools: e.g. opting-out or charter schools


Marketization

SupplyDemand

Medium of Exchange

Market signals

Standardization of Performances

of all aspects of schools

Consumers’ Information

System

Devolution, & de-regulation of

Public-schoolSector

Management by Output &

the hegemonyof performativity

Entrepreneurial School and

Management By Publicity

Surveillance-evaluationismD

isciplin

e-Man

agerialism

Par

ento

crac

y-co

nsu

mer

ism

Claaaification, Hierarchization &

Stratification

Normalization, by accountability &

auditing

Consumer-Choice Mechanism, e.g.School voucher,Privatization, …

Globalization:Compression

of Time & Space

EconomicConsequences

Political Consequences

Cultural Consequences

Social Consequences

Education Reform as

Governance Project of

Competition state

InstrumentalEconomicism:

Lifelong learning for

Employability &Competitiveness

Surveillance-Evaluationism:Constituting the

Medium ofExchange for Quasi-market

Mechanism

Discipline-Managerialism:Constituting theSuuply-side ofQuasi-market

Mechanism

Parentocracy-Consumerism:Constituting theDemand-side ofQuasi-market

Mechanism

Parallel Paradigmatic Comparison

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Instrumental Economicsm & Lifelong-Learning Education Reform in HKSAR

The principle of instrumental economicism underlying the HKSAR reform ECR#5: Discourse on teachers as human resource for

enhancing the competitiveness of HK economy in global market ECR#6: Enhancing language proficiency as an instrument for

“maintaining Hong Kong’s competitive edge as the hub of international trading and commercial activities.” (Parag. 2.2)

ECR#7: Quality education is defined as instrument “to build a competent work force to promote social, economic and cultural development and to increase our competitiveness in the international market. (Parag. 1.5)

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The principle of instrumental economicism underlying the HKSAR reform EC Aims of Education (1999): Education Blueprint for the

21st Century ED MOI Guidance for Secondary School (1997) SCOLEAR Action Plan to Raise Language Standards in

Hong Kong (2003). EC Review of MOI for Secondary Schools and SSPA (2005)


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Operational mechanism of quasi-market discourse in HKSAR education reform Medium of exchange of the quasi-market: “Surveillance-

Evaluationism” ECR#4 proposal of TAR (Target-related Assessment) and firm

guidance for MOI policy 1994 ED publicize MIGA Publication of Profiles for Secondary Schools (1999) Publication of Profiles for Primary Schools (2000) Establishment of SVAIS (School Value Added Information System) Implementation of a three-level IT competence assessment for all

school teachers (2000)


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Operational mechanism of quasi-market discourse in HKSAR education reform Medium of exchange of the quasi-market: “Surveillance-

Evaluationism” 2000 Language Benching Assessment for English and Putonhau

teachers Publication of The Teacher Competencies Framework (2003) Publication of The Framework for Continuing Professional

Development of School Principals (2002) Publicizing QAI report in the Internet Carrying out Basic Competence Assessment on students 2005 EC Review of MOI for Secondary Schools and SSPA

announced new assessment method of identifying EMI-capable


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Operational mechanism of quasi-market discourse in HKSAR education reform Supply side of the quasi-market: “Discipline-

Managerialism” ECR#7: Proposals on Quality Assurance and Quality Management Publication of Performance Indicators by ED (1998) Establishing the three-tier framework of Quality-Assurance

Mechanism (1998) ED Carrying out Quality-Assurance Inspection (1998) ED organizing competitions of Awards for Outstanding schools and

Teachers (1998) Publication of School Based Management Consultation Document

(2000)


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Operational mechanism of quasi-market discourse in HKSAR education reform Supply side of the quasi-market: “Discipline-Managerialism”

Implementation of School Self Evaluation in 2003 (SSE) EMB began to shut down primary schools with insufficient

student enrollments (2003) Implementation of External School Review 2004 (ESR) Passage of the Education (Amendment) Ordinance 2004 Ascending and descending mechanism between EMI and CMI

schools


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Operational mechanism of quasi-market discourse in HKSAR education reform

Demand side: “Consumer Sovereignty” ECR#3 proposed to establish Direct Subsidy Scheme in order to recognize

“the potential educational benefits of a strong, independent private school sector.” (Parag. 4.12 (a))

Proposal on establishment of Through-Train Schools (2000) Proposal on increasing the percentage of discretionary places in SSPA

from 10% to 20% Implementation of New DSS: Government and subsidized schools can opt

out of the SSPA system and collect school fee up to the maximum of 66,00 per year and still be able to obtain the full per capita subsidy of that of the subsidized schools. (2001)

Review on SSPA propose to increase the discretionary places in SSPA to 30%


Marketization

SupplyDemand

Medium of Exchange

Market signals

PrincipalProfessional Development

TeacherCompetenceFramework

LanguageProficiencyAsessment

EMI-CapableTeachers

EMI-CapableStudentsSVAIS

TTRA,TOC,

SVAIS

Standardization, Normalization, Commodification & Reification

ParentalChoice

EMI Schools

DSS

SSPADiscretionaryPlaces

Fra

gm

enta

tio

n &

S

trat

ific

atio

n

AuditedSchools

SBM

QAI

SSE

ERS

S-B Ordinance

Stan

dard

ization

&

Dism

antliztio

n

Surveillance-evaluationism

Discipline-managerialism

Pre-school Voucher System

Parentocracy-consumerism

Globalization:Compression

of Time & Space

EconomicConsequences

Political Consequences

Cultural Consequences

Social Consequences

Education Reform as

Governance Project of

Competition state

InstrumentalEconomicism:

Lifelong learning for

Employability &Competitiveness

Surveillance-Evaluationism:Constituting the

Medium ofExchange for Quasi-market

Mechanism

Discipline-Managerialism:Constituting theSuuply-side ofQuasi-market

Mechanism

Parentocracy-Consumerism:Constituting theDemand-side ofQuasi-market

Mechanism

Parallel Paradigmatic Comparison

Global education in the 21st century world system: A Institutionalist Framework

Levels of institution Elements of institution

Regulative elements

Normative elements

Cognitive elements

Supra-System level

Global-informational capitalist world system

System level De-sovereign competition

state

De-nationalistic market

economy

Sector level Quasi-marketized and hierarchically structured mass

education

Organizational level

Enterprising, commodified, and market-driven schools

Individual level Group-based consumers

(II)Global Education Reforms for the Twentieth Century

Why were state educational system constructed throughout Europe in the Late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries?

Prussia 1716: Fredrick William I made attendance at village schools compulsory

for all children not otherwise provided with instruction 1763: Fredrick II (Fredrick the Great )issued General Regulation for

Village School at the end of the Seven Year War (1756-1763), in which Prussia and England defeated Austria and France

Compulsory state-directed education as means for national unification of Prussia

1806: The defeat by the Napoleon and the humiliating Treaty of Tilsit elicited the call for the provision of universal, state-directed, compulsory education as means for nation building

Ramirz & Boli’s Study of the Institutionalization of Mass Education in the 20th century

Austria 1774: Under the rule of Joseph II, universal compulsory

education law was passed after the defeat in the Seven Year War by Prussia and England

1866: The defeat by Prussia led to definite effort to establish a state-controlled and secular schooling system

Denmark 1721: Frederick IV proclaim to build a genuine national

education system After the loss of Norway and Sweden in 1809 symbolized the fall

from the status as a major European power, passage of law to introduce compulsory education for children between the age seven and fourteen.


France 1791: The 1791 Constitution called for the establishment of a system

of free instruction common to all citizens. Napoleon rose to power and developed secondary and higher

education as a means to produce effective elite from the military and governmental apparatus.

Democratizing and secularizing trends in education were repressed as the result of the 1840 Revolution and the subsequent regime of the Louis Napoleon in 1892.

After the defeat the Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, by 1881 the Third Republic established a universal, free compulsory primary school system


England 1807: First attempt to extend public aid to parochial schools for

the mass was defeated in the House of Lords. 1870: Elementary Education Act 1870 mandated the provision of

elementary education to all but stopped short of decreeing compulsory education. The Act could be interpreted as responses to a number of political instances, e.g. the 1867 political reform enfranchising the working classes, the rise of the unified Germany and the United States in the late 1860s threatened British industrial supremacy, and the 1867 Paris Exhibition, at which English products compared unfavorably with those of other countries.

1944: Introduction of 9-year compulsory education


The Thesis of the Political Construction of Mass Education The rise of European model of national society The rise of nation-state and the intensification of

inter-state conflict The Reformation in Christianity and counter-

Reformation The rise of the exchange economy


Elements of the European Model of a national Society

1. Myth of the individual

2. Myth of the nation as an aggregate of individuals

3. Myth of progress (national & individual)

4.Myth of socialization and life-cycle continuity

5. Myth of the state as the guardian of the nation

Institutionalization of the Nation-State & the interstate System

Expansion of theexchange Economy

Reformation &Counter-reformation

State Educational System as Means of National Mobility

3. Resources Mobilization for War a. Domestic extraction leading to

authoritarianism

b. Lack of resource mobilization leading to defeat

c. Escape:

i. Foreign resource extraction

ii. Foreign alliance iii. Domestic wealth from

industrialization iv. Foreign loan v. Geographical protection

2. War Pressure a. New technology & strategy

b. Army infantry discipline & size increase

c. War pressure from Turks, religious strife, trade, or agrarian change

1. Medieval Constitutionalism

a. Equal bargaining power between king & others

b. Growth of cities in people, economics & wealth

c. Proto-democratic parliament

3. Form of state a. Defeat & loss of

sovereignty

b. Military-bureaucratic absolutism

c. Populist absolutism

d. Liberal democratic government

Janoski’s thesis of development of citizenship & nation-state

Education as a World Culture Institution Ontological basis of modern education

primary unit: individual child organizational unit: school role unit within organization: principal, teacher and

student institutional unit: nation-state

Structural basis of modern education free, egalitarian, compulsory and rational professionalized personnel standardized and certified product


Education as a World Culture Institution Legitimation basis of modern organization

enhances labor productivitycreates good citizenshipprovides opportunities for self-fulfillmentincrease national well-being, security, political stabilityfacilitates democracy, liberty and equality


Global education reform in the 20th century world system: A Institutionalist Framework

Levels of institution Elements of institution

Regulative elements

Normative elements

Cognitive elements

Supra-System level

Inter-state competition world system

System level Sovereign national

welfare state

National market

economy

Sector level State controlled and hierarchically structured mass

education

Organizational level

Bureaucratic, standardized, and professional-led schools

Individual level Group-based citizens

END

Lecture 8Approach to Comparative-Historical Method (5):

Critical Hermeneutic Perspective

(I) Global Education Reform for the 21st Century

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