Hydrogen2009 Engl

8/2/2019 Hydrogen2009 Engl

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HYDROGEN the Key to Global Energy SustainabilityProduction and Application Examples

in North Rhine-Westphalia


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Cover photo:

Fuel cell

Source: Fraunhofer ISE


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3Inhalt

Contents

Preface: State Government of North Rhine-Westphalia ............................................................. 4

Preface: Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Network NRW .......................................................................... 5

Introductory Remarks: International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE)....................... 6

1 Hydrogen Why, When, and How Much?.............................................................................. 7

n General assumptions............................................................................................................... 7

n Hydrogen in the chemical industry......................................................................................... 8

n Hydrogen as an energy carrier................................................................................................ 8

2 Hydrogen Production.............................................................................................................. 9

n Reforming of natural gas ......................................................................................................... 9

n Electrolysis of water................................................................................................................10

n Synthesis gas produced from coal.........................................................................................12

n Industrial hydrogen.................................................................................................................13

n Photobiological hydrogen production ...................................................................................14n Utilization of biomass .............................................................................................................15

n Cycle processes: thermochemical hydrogen production.....................................................16

3 Hydrogen Logistics.................................................................................................................18

n Supplying hydrogen ................................................................................................................18

n Storing hydrogen.....................................................................................................................19

4 Hydrogen Utilization...............................................................................................................21

n Outline of fuel cell systems.....................................................................................................21

n Stationary applications ..........................................................................................................24

n Mobile applications................................................................................................................. 27

n Special early markets.............................................................................................................30

5 Hydrogen Activities in North Rhine-Westphalia .................................................................32

n International activities............................................................................................................32

n Regional activities...................................................................................................................33

Appendix ............................................................................................................................................34

n Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Network NRW..................................................................................34

n EnergyRegion.NRW ................................................................................................................35

n EnergyResearch.NRW.............................................................................................................37

n EnergyAgency.NRW................................................................................................................39

n 18th World Hydrogen Energy Conference (WHEC) 2010......................................................40n Hydrogen Data ........................................................................................................................41

n List of Institutions...................................................................................................................42

Imprint ............................................................................................................................................43


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4 Preface

Supplying energy in a safe, economical, resource-sparing

and environmentally friendly way will in the long run be

based on both providing a balanced mix of energy carriers

and continuously developing novel sustainable technologies

for applications in the energy market. In the 21st century,

hydrogen and fuel cells will play a major role in the supply

of energy. These technologies will make an important

contribution to North Rhine-Westphalia's climate protection

strategy: from 2020 on, the aim is to reduce CO2 emissions

by 81 million tons compared to 2005.

North Rhine-Westphalia has a leading part in the field of

hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The State Government

supports and promotes research, development and

demonstration projects carried out by industrial companies

and scientific institutions. Fuel cells can be utilized not

only for stationary applications, such as supplying energy

to residential homes, but also for securing electrical

mobility. Electrical mobility plays an important role in the

integrated fuel and drive strategy pursued by North Rhine-

Westphalia. We consider fuel cell technology and battery

technology as two technical options that can supplementeach other in an excellent way and will allow North Rhine-

Westphalia to act as a model region for electrical mobility

in Germany and Europe.

Preface: State Government of North Rhine-Westphalia

The market introduction and commercialization of

hydrogen and fuel cell applications requires an extensive

hydrogen infrastructure. Again, North Rhine-Westphalia

provides favourable conditions: first, we have considerable

amounts of hydrogen gained as a by-product from industrial

processes, and second, the hydrogen pipeline already

available in our state offers unique possibilities. Our central

project "North Rhine-Westphalia Hydrogen HyWay" aims

at intensifying the activities carried out in terms of hydrogen

and fuel cell technologies and applications.

Fuel cells have the potential to become an export hit "made

in NRW": the energy state of North Rhine-Westphalia is

developing and producing the fuel cell technology from its

components to complete plant systems. Also, the fact that

the 18th World Hydrogen Energy Conference (May 16 to

21, 2010) will take place in Essen underlines the strong

position held by North Rhine-Westphalia in the field of

hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. This conference will

offer an excellent opportunity to North Rhine-Westphalia

to demonstrate its research, innovation and performance

potential to the international community.

With this new edition of our hydrogen brochure, we intend

to inform you about the developments achieved so far

hydrogen and fuel cell technologies and their applications

constitute major milestones in the energy landscape of

the future.

Christa Thoben

Minister of Economic Affairs and Energy

of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia

Dr. Andreas Pinkwart

Minister of Innovation, Science,

Research and Technology

of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia


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5

Preface: Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Network NRW

In 2010, the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Network NRW will

celebrate its 10th anniversary. The network was founded in

April 2000, originating from a group of 50 members working

at that time in a working group of the former Landesinitiative

Zukunftsenergien NRW (NRW State Initiative on Future

Energies). With its 350 active members, the network has

become the largest network institution addressing this

subject area. For the most part, the members come from

North Rhine-Westphalia, but, increasingly, also from

European and non-European countries.

The network aims at establishing a novel branch of industry

by supporting the development of hydrogen and fuel cell

technologies, including the development of specific systems

components, and preparing their marketability via selected

pilot markets.

Against this background, the range of topics pursued by the

network has changed over the past few years, in accordance

with the fuel cell technology problems to be solved. At first,

the most important task was to bring together the players

in North Rhine-Westphalia and to intensify the know-howtransfer from research institutions to industrial firms. Later,

with the scientific and technical progress achieved and the

increasing commitment of the players involved, initiating a

diversity of projects gained in importance.

Accordingly, the subject matter addressed by the various

projects is reflecting the progress achieved in fuel cell

technologies within the last ten years. At first, applications

such as stationary energy supply systems were tested in

small-scale field tests. This in turn led to the

Foreword

development of adapted systems components such asblowers, converters, etc. Overall, these activities have

qualified North Rhine-Westphalia as an important location

for producing first-rate fuel cell components, for which there

is a growing demand by both domestic and foreign systems

manufacturers.

Current efforts focus on developing potential applications

(fuel cell forklifts, midibusses, cargobikes, uninterrupted

power supply) and on testing these applications in field

tests. In this context, we are closely cooperating with NIP

(Nationales Innovationsprogramm Wasserstoff- und

Brennstoffzellentechnologie, National Innovation Program

for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies). As the project

examples described in this brochure will show, many of

these applications are successfully launched already or will

soon prove their marketability. At the same time, together

with our international partners, we are making intense efforts

to prepare the so-called mass markets in terms of

automotive and stationary energy supply systems. Thus,

we do not only promote projects supporting the gradual

installation of the necessary infrastructure but also the

establishment of the social and regulatory framework for

spreading the fuel cell and hydrogen technologies.

As to the development of these technologies, there is no

end in sight. Technological progress in terms of hydrogen

storage, fuel cell stacks and systems components will widen

the spectrum of potential applications and lead to significant

cost reductions.

The Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Network NRW will continue to

support its partners on this journey.

Dr. Andreas Ziolek

Head of

Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Network NRW


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Introductory Remarks: International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE)

The International Association for Hydrogen Energy

congratulates North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany's energy

state Number One, on its achievements with best wishes

for consistently following the route into the hydrogen

energy economy.

After coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fission, renewable

energies, and electricity, hydrogen energy, for the time

being, provides the final link in the energy mix. Like

electricity, hydrogen energy is a secondary energy; primary

energy is needed for its production. Of course, electricity

and hydrogen exhibit many differences, but also remarkable

common ground: almost any primary energy serves their

production; once produced, they are environmentally and

climatically clean along their entire energy conversionchains; both contribute to generating more exergy from

energy and causing less anergy (energy = exergy + anergy);

both require supply lines (with minor exceptions) and tend

to shift the focus of national energy conversion chains

towards their final stages where secondary energy forms

are converted to end energy, to useful energy, and, finally,

to energy services. The secondary energy economy gains

in importance. Decentralization is increasing.

Energy forms are changing: Until far into the 18 th century,

exclusively renewable energies were in use, representing

the first solar civilization; the 19th century was the century

of coal, at the turn of the century and in the 20 th century

supplemented by mineral oil, natural gas, and, finally,

nuclear fission. At the beginning of the 21st century, energy

efficiency, in particular exergy efficiency, efficient energy

conversion processes and efficient applications will come

to the fore, focussing on both hydrogen as an energy carrier

and modern application technologies for utilizing renewable

energies, now representing the second solar civilization.

The 22nd century will be the first century of energy

sustainability perhaps. Without hydrogen, energy

sustainability remains incomplete.

6 Introductory Remarks

Never in the history of mankind was there only one form

of energy in use, never has a novel form of energy

completely replaced its predecessors; the ever growing

energy demand needed them all. The energy mix, however,

changed dramatically. Innovations were and are the

rule. With nearly 50 percent of exergy efficiency, our coal-

fired power plants are brilliant, although, with the other 50

percent, they still produce irreversibly too much heat, at

the wrong temperature and the wrong place where no user

asks for it. With even higher exergy efficiency rates on the

horizon, combined power cycle plants will be built, where

hydrogen helps to decarbonize and thus hydrogenize and

dematerialize fossil energies. This is the future.

Hydrogen could be a clean fuel for automobiles,locomotives, ships, and airplanes; hydrogen serves to store

and transport renewable energies, thus facilitating their

contribution to the global energy trade system; hydrogen

allows fuel cells in automobiles and central heating systems

in buildings, enabling the urgently needed increase in exergy

efficiency at the end of national energy conversion chains

where two thirds of the nation's end energy is demanded

(Germany). Novel jobs are generated in the energy services

market. What is not in demand at the end of efficient energy

chains does not have to be supplied at the beginning.

What will help the hydrogen energy economy on the road

to success? The technologies are at hand or at the

development stage. The ecological relevance of hydrogen

is beyond doubt. It is now a matter of intensifying the

creation of awareness in the public and, in particular, among

policymakers.

Be aware: itsHytime.de

Prof. Dr. Carl-Jochen Winter

Vice-President

The International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE)


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7

1. Hydrogen Why, When, and How Much?

Our global energy supply problems as well as challenges

caused by environmental and climatic factors require

innovative solutions in the energy sector: fuel cells and

hydrogen as a novel energy carrier will increasingly

contribute to safe, efficient and clean energy conversion

processes and their economic utilization.

General assumptions

Future-oriented energy supply systems are based on a

prudent use of selected energy carriers:

n providing primary energies in a secure, economic and

eco-friendly way and ensuring their long-term availability,

n producing end energy carriers from various primary

energy sources with high efficiency,n intensifying the utilization of regenerative primary energy

sources, and

n increasing the expenditure on developing new

infrastructures.

Against this background, prospective energy carriers such

as hydrogen will gain special significance in the energy sector

if they are not only eligible for conventional and innovative

energy conversion processes but also allow for a sustainable

production on the basis of regenerative primary energy

carriers (Fig. 1.1). This, however, can only be achieved under

the following three conditions:

n availability of adequate potentials satisfying the growing

energy demand,

n sufficient supply of energy carriers at competitive costs,

and

n development of new infrastructures.

In the long run, hydrogen and electricity primarily based

on CO2-free production processes will be of paramount

importance to the energy supply situation. On the one hand,

electricity can directly be fed into the grid; hydrogen, on the

other hand, due to its superior storage capacity, offers

attractive solutions for mobile applications and the

transmission of fluctuating solar energy or wind power.

Hydrogen and electricity are interconvertible. Both energy

carriers can be produced on a fossil, non-fossil or long-term

regenerative basis.

Hydrogen can be used for a wide range of stationary, mobile,

and portable energy applications. In this context, the trend

is to develop suitable engines and turbines and, in particular,

fuel cells as highly efficient electrochemical energyconverters. In the area of mobile applications, hydrogen can

also be used directly as feed gas in low-temperature fuel

cells for electric drives.

The utilization of hydrogen as a secondary energy carrier,

if possible produced on the basis of regenerative sources,

will gain in importance the more so, since the dominant

position of fossil-based energy carriers in the market is

weakening and the global community will finally favour

efficient and environmentally acceptable energy conversion

systems based on fuel cells.

Figure 1.1: Hydrogen in the energy system of the future

Source: Forschungszentrum Jlich GmbH (2008)

* also via fermentation

Development of a transport energy system without crude oil

*

natural gas coalbiomass

gasificationreforming

CO2-free power stationpre-combustion IGCC

CO2 capture

electricity generation:wind, solar,

hydro, nuclear

synthesis gas (H2, CO2, CO), CO2

heterogeneously catalyzedsynthesis

H2 separationprocessing

CO2storage

H2

electrolysis

industrialresidual H2

CO2

sunfuel* methanol synfuel hydrogen electricitynaturalgas

1. Hydrogen - Why, When, and How Much?


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Figure 1.2: Hydrogen in the chemical industry

Source: DLR (2006)

80 % fertilizer

20 % technical

consecutive products

organic syntheses

plastics

alcohol

Indirect energetic utilization:fuels and lubricants

hydrotreating

hydrocracking

synthetic fuels

methanol

substitute natural gas (CH4)

synthetic oil

processed crude oil

mineral oil

refinery

Fischer-Tropsch-synthesis

methanol synthesis

methanization

coal hydrogenation

heavy oil

hydrogenation

non-energetic utilization:chemical products

ammonia

methanol

oxo syntheses

hydrogenation of

organic intermediate

products

iron ore

direct reduction

reduction gas

protective gas

CO

CO

CO

CO

hydrogen

amine

cyclohexane

fatty alcohol

fat hydrogenation

sponge iron/crude iron

special metals

sinter processes

silicon chemistryfloat glass

Hydrogen in the chemical industry

In the chemical industry, particularly in petrochemical plants,

hydrogen is primarily used for producing ammonia and

refining crude oil for the production of fuels and high-quality

chemical products. In addition, hydrogen is used for reduc

tion processes in the metal-processing industry, as a cooling

medium in electrical generators, as a protective gas in

electronics engineering, for welding and cutting processes

in mechanical engineering, and for the hydrogenation of

fats and oils in the food industry.

At present, the global hydrogen demand amounts to about

540 billion cubic metres per year (approximately 20 billion

cubic metres in Germany), with a rising hydrogen demand

to be expected in the chemical industry. First, the growing

world population will cause an increase in the production ofartificial fertilizers; second, easily mineable and low-sulphur

crude oil resources are dwindling noticeably, and for the

production of innovative "sulphur-free" fuels ("hydrotrea

ting"), hydrogen is needed as much as for processing heavy

crude oil and oil sand ("hydrocracking"). Today, 96 percent

of hydrogen used as a chemical base product is produced

on the basis of fossil energy carriers (primarily natural gas),

whereas 4 percent is based on water electrolysis. Only a

small portion of the worldwide hydrogen production is being

traded as "merchant hydrogen" in gaseous or liquid form.

8 1. Hydrogen - Why, When, and How Much?

Hydrogen as an energy carrier

Due to their intermittent availability, renewable energy

sources are only to some extent eligible for direct use in the

form of heat and electricity. Thus, more extensive utilization

of these inexhaustible energy sources will require a storable,

transportable, and eco-friendly energy carrier. Hydrogen

will meet these requirements. If produced on the basis of

water, hydrogen is compatible with the existing energy

supply system and offers excellent possibilities both for

the environmentally acceptable and safe generation of heat

and electricity and for its utilization as a clean fuel: the

reaction product is always pure water. Moreover, it is also

possible to produce hydrogen on the basis of solar energy

as well as wind and water power an option that will prove

profitable in the long run. Hydrogen is the key to global

energy sustainability (Fig. 1.2).

Against this background, North Rhine-Westphalia offers

most favourable starting conditions: a density of commercial

plants for producing hydrogen that is unique in Europe, the

availability of significant amounts of hydrogen gained as a

by-product of the chemical industry, and the existence of

infrastructural elements (pipeline) that might well serve as

a solid basis for gradually developing service station net

works. Thus, unlike other regions, North Rhine-Westphalia

does not have to launch its hydrogen infrastructure in the

open countryside.


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9

Today, the amounts of hydrogen produced for the chemical

industry are primarily derived from natural-gas reforming

processes, water electrolysis, and coal gasification. In future,

however, supplying hydrogen for the energy market will also

require the development of innovative processes for

example, novel solutions using wind and solar energy. The

electricity generated from renewable energy sources will

serve to produce hydrogen in electrolysis units; today,

electrolysers, largely used for the production of chlorine,

are mainly powered with fossil-based electricity. Another

method of hydrogen production is to convert biomass (solar

energy stored via photosynthesis), digester gases resulting

from wastewater treatment plants, and residual organic

compounds into hydrogen (Fig. 2.1).

2. Hydrogen Production

Figure 2.2: Steam reforming and CO conversion steps for producing hydrogen from natural gas

Source: DLR (2006)

< 10 % CO

< 2 % CO < 0.2 % CO < 0.002 % CO

H2 separationtwo-step

CO conversion

allothermal reformer

flue gas

air

shift reaction

CO + H2O=>CO2+ H2

steam reforming

of natural gas

CH4 + H2O =>CO+ 3 H2

CO + H2O =>CO2 + H2

autothermal reformer

hydrogenWrme

natural gas

water

natural gas

water

air

800 C

800 C

400 C 200 C 100 C

heat


Reforming of natural gas

At present, the production of hydrogen is mainly based on

the process of natural-gas reforming (Fig. 2.2), but also on

the gasification of coal or biomass. With these processes,

the first step is to produce a synthesis gas (hydrogen, carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide, steam, and residual hydro-

carbons). Via a conversion reaction with water, carbon

monoxide can then be converted into hydrogen and carbon

dioxide. Subsequently, hydrogen is separated from the gas

mixture via absorption, adsorption or by means of

membranes.

Figure 2.1: Energy conversion steps in non-fossil-based hydrogen production

Source: DLR (2006)

2. Herstellung von Wasserstoff

biomass

electrolysis of water H2O => H2 + O2

electrical energy

mechanical energy

reforming

gas purification

fermentation

anaerobic

digestion

gasification

thermal energy

photovoltaicssolar thermal energy wind energyhydropower

s o l a r e n e r g y

h y d r o g e n

biophotolysis

catalytic

photolysis

photoelectrolysis

H2O => H2 + O2

reformingcracking

gasificationof

hydrocarbons

thermo-chemicalcycles for

watersplitting

gas purification


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Electrolysis of water

When it comes to supplying sustainably generated electricity

to the hydrogen energy market, the electrochemical

production of hydrogen and oxygen from water will gain in

importance. The process of alkaline high pressure electrolysis

is the oldest and most widespread technology, allowing

plant capacities up to 30,000 cubic metres of hydrogen

production per hour. In addition, high-temperature steam

electrolysis methods with solid electrolytes conducting

oxygen ions (operating at temperatures of 800 C to

1,000 C) are under development; also, the trend is to

develop membrane cell electrolysis methods with proton-

conducting solid electrolytes (operating at a temperature

of 80 C). In water electrolysis processes, the chemical

reaction requires electricity: H2O + electric energy = H2 +

O2.

Basically, an electrolyser consists of an anode and a cathode,

with the two entities separated by a diaphragm permeable

for ions, but impermeable for gas. The cell is filled with an

electrolyte. Oxygen is delivered at the anode and hydrogen

is released at the cathode (Fig. 2.3).

On an industrial scale, several cells are connected in series

to constitute more powerful electrolysers. Since high

pressure electrolysis processes allow fast load alternations

(20 % to 100 % of the nominal load), it is possible to utilize

strongly fluctuating renewable energy sources such as wind

power. Thus, in combination with electrical energy gained

from wind power, the alkaline high pressure water electrolysis

process demonstrates a regenerative technology for

producing hydrogen at an efficiency of approximately 80

percent (heating value) without any network losses.

10 2. Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen in the Cologne region

In the Cologne region, hydrogen is obtained in large

quantities as a by-product of refineries and local chemical

plants (mainly from chlorine production) (Fig. 2.4). Overall,

the region is producing approximately 6.7 billion cubic metres

of hydrogen per year, which for the most part is used in situ.

The available quantities (203,000 normal cubic metres per

day) meet the energy demand for operating some 56,000passenger cars (12,000 km per year; 3.5 l gasoline equivalent

per 100 km or 120 MJ H2 per 100 km). In this context, the

network HyCologne Wasserstoff Region Rheinland e.V.

plans to provide large amounts of industrial hydrogen as an

energy carrier to be used in transportation and other

projects. In 2010, two fuel cell hybrid buses manufactured

in the Netherlands will be operated in the Cologne region,

thus demonstrating a first application of this technology.

Figure 2.4: Chlorine-alkaline electrolysis in Hrth-Knapsack

Source: HyCologne (2009)

Figure 2.3: Flowchart of the alkaline water electrolysis

process

Source: DLR (2006)

cathode anode

- DC +

waterwater

hydrogen diaphragm oxygen

gas

separator

circulationo

felectro

lyte

gas

separator

circulationo

felectro

lyte


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11

energy and power management system

H2 compressor H2 storage

H2air

hydrogenappliance centre

wind power station

H2-generator

DC/ACconverter

DC/ACconverter

fuel cell

electricity

complementary energy system


Decentralized hydrogen supply

The supply of remote areas and decentralized users with

electricity is mainly based on diesel generators, but due to

currency-intensive diesel import requirements, many

developing countries and emerging markets are facing

economic problems they can hardly ever solve. A large

number of these countries have a high potential of wind

or solar energy that could easily be used for developing

a decentralized power supply infrastructure based on

renewable energies to the greatest possible extent. Against

this background, complementary energy systems offer the

best solution: they allow the partial storage of electricity

generated from renewable energies in the form of hydrogen

produced via water electrolysis, but where the direct supply

of regenerative energy is insufficient or a short-time peak

demand requires additional energy inputs, they can also re-convert hydrogen into electricity via fuel cells or combustion

engines. A complementary energy system of this type is

planned for the hydrogen appliance centre in Herten (Fig.

2.5). Combined with a wind power plant, the system will

meet the overall electricity demand of 200,000 kilowatt-

hours per year, operating on a self-sufficient and CO2-free

basis.

Figure 2.5: Flowchart of a complementary hydrogen energy system (Herten)Source: FH Gelsenkirchen (2009)


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Synthesis gas produced from coal

One of the most important challenges in terms of innovative

technologies for coal-fired power plants is to remove carbon

dioxide from the power station process to the greatest

possible extent. Several technologies are being developed:

pre-combustion techniques (integrated gasification, CO2

separation and hydrogen generation prior to the combustion

process), oxyfuel techniques (combustion with oxygen

without nitrogen, separation of CO2 and H2O from the flue

gas) and post-combustion techniques (separation of CO2-

and N2- from the flue gas).

Figure 2.6: Hydrogen production on the basis of coal gasification with CO2 capture and storage (CSS)

within the framework of an RWE project development

Source: RWE Power AG (2009)

to sulphurprocessing

alternativefuels:

air separation gasifier raw gas coolingdust collection

sulphurseparation

COconversion

C2 capture andcompression

gasification gas processing and CO2 capture

lignite

hard coal

drier

biomass

residues

dustrecircu-

lation

topro-

cessing

CO + steam CO2 + H2

steam

CO2 + H2

clean gas CO + H2raw gas CO + H2 + ...

steam

H2O2

air

N2 to gas turbine

CO2 to storage facility

water

Coal-fired power plant (Hrth) with CO2 separation

Producing hydrogen on the basis of a coal gasification

system integrated in a coal-fired combi-power-plant (pre-

combustion technique) represents an innovative process

converting coal into a synthesis gas which mainly consists

of carbon monoxide (CO) and a larger share of hydrogen:

C + H2O = CO + H2. This is the technique to be realized in

the coal-fired power station in Hrth within the framework

of an RWE project development (Fig. 2.6). In this case, the

amount of hydrogen obtained from coal will be used directly

as an energy carrier for generating electricity via a gas

turbine. The carbon dioxide collected from the hydrogen

generation process (at a separation ratio of 90 %) will be

stored in deep saline formations. The so-called Carbon

Capture and Storage (CSS) technology will make it possible

to produce hydrogen from coal almost without releasingcarbon dioxide to the atmosphere.


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Industrial hydrogen

The vision of a climatically acceptable use of hydrogen for

energy supply systems is inseparably linked to its production

from regenerative energy sources. For a certain transition

period, however, relying on hydrogen obtained from industrial

processes (including existing infrastructure facilities) does

make sense. North Rhine-Westphalia offers favourable

conditions in that the Rhine-Ruhr area has quite a number

of locations eligible not only for the energetic utilization of

hydrogen but also for the development of a hydrogen

infrastructure.

Developing a hydrogen infrastructure

In a study carried out for the government of North Rhine-

Westphalia ("Options for the cost-optimized development

of a hydrogen infrastructure in North Rhine-Westphalia"),the data collected on the quantities of hydrogen available

in North Rhine-Westphalia are linked to modelling the

development of a hydrogen infrastructure. Figure 2.7

summarizes the results: Only 16 percent of the overall

hydrogen production comes from chlorine-producing plants

although these plants and locations are contributing 80

percent to the hydrogen potential for novel applications.

Figure 2.7: Availability of industrial hydrogen in North Rhine-Westphalia and

hydrogen potential for novel applications


overall chlorine refineries others

2,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

12,000

14,000

10,785

958

1,73

2

810

3,36

3

56

5,691

92

H2 NRW total

H2 NRW potential

normal cubic metres (thousands) per day

In the short term, the industrial hydrogen potential available

in North Rhine-Westphalia (estimated at 958,000 normal

cubic metres per day or 350 million normal cubic metres

per year) would be sufficient for operating around 260,000

fuel cell passenger cars (12,000 km per year, with a fuel

consumption of 3.5 l of gasoline equivalent per 100 km or

roughly 1 kg H2 per 100 km). Thus, it would be possible to

launch initial projects facilitating the introduction of hydrogen

into the market place. Apart from the availability of hydrogen

obtained from industrial processes, however, the utilization

of hydrogen for operating the first fuel cell vehicles is also

dependent on both the location and the extent of existing

infrastructural facilities. In this context, North Rhine-

Westphalia offers the advantage of an existing hydrogen

pipeline which could make an essential contribution towardsimproving the coverage of hydrogen supply systems well

beyond the locations where industrial hydrogen is produced.


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Photobiological hydrogen production

Water-splitting is a process optimized in nature in many

facets it occurs every day during the photosynthesis in

plants. Sunlight is the primary energy source supplying

plants with the energy they require in order to split water

into hydrogen ions, oxygen and electrons, thus enabling

them to convert carbon dioxide to biomass.

Microorganisms: green algae and cyanobacteria

Microorganisms such as green algae and cyanobacteria

are capable of combining hydrogen ions and electrons

to molecular hydrogen by using a specific enzyme

(hydrogenase). Unfortunately, this enzyme is inactivated by

oxygen so that under "normal" conditions (in the presence

of air or oxygen), microorganisms do not produce hydrogen.At the University of Bochum, however, laboratory tests have

successfully demonstrated that hydrogen can be produced

from microorganisms under anaerobic (oxygen-free)

conditions: by removing the sulphur compounds, the

photosynthetic process is controllable to such an extent

that the oxygen-consuming cell respiration will exceed the

oxygen-producing photosynthesis (Fig. 2.8). The aim is to

develop this photobiological process of hydrogen production

into a technology that will be competitive on a large-scale

basis, increasing the amount of hydrogen produced (at

present, 2 millilitres in one litre suspension per hour) by a

factor of 100. Furthermore, the research and development

activities carried out at the University of Bochum aim at

providing a cost and energy efficient design of the systems

periphery. The objective is to develop mass fermentation

systems for microalgae (photobiological fermenters) at a

cost level well under 10 percent of the costs incurred by the

systems available at present.

Microalgae of the genus of chlamydomonas

Supported by BMBF (Federal Ministry of Education and

Research), EU (European Union) and DFG (German

Research Foundation), the Center for Biotechnology(CeBiTec) at the University of Bielefeld (Department of

Algal Biotechnology) has successfully developed novel forms

of molecular-biological phyla that, compared to their

primitive forms, can produce larger quantities of hydrogen,

at the same time allowing a much more efficient process of

converting solar energy into biomass via an optimized optical

waveguide system (Fig. 2.9). In cooperation with engineers

from the Technical University of Karlsruhe (TH Karlsruhe)

and the University of Queensland, closed photobiological

reactor systems are being designed for utilizing these novel

algal phyla. Research projects carried out to develop both

microalgae mutated by genetic engineering and novel

bioreactor systems will crucially improve the catalytic

process of solar hydrogen production from water.


Figure 2.9: Hydrogen producing algal phyla

Left: electron micrograph of a hydrogen producing algal

mutant (chlamydomonas reinhardtii); Centre: optical

microscopy of reinhardtii cells; Right: hydrogen producing

laboratory plant

Source: Universitt Bielefeld (2009)

Figure 2.8: Photobioreactor with optical waveguide system

for photobiological hydrogen production

Source: Ruhr-Universitt Bochum (2009)


15/44

15

Utilization of biomass

Biomass can be utilized as an energy carrier in a variety of

forms and compounds. In addition to converting biomass

into heat (via direct combustion) or liquefying organic

compounds to fuels (bio-oil), it is also possible to generate

methane or hydrogen by anaerobic fermentation or

gasification with water vapour. The advantage of utilizing

biomass is the regular availability of energy supply as

compared to the natural fluctuations typical of solar energy

plants and wind or water power stations. Hydrogen can also

be produced directly, without the intermediate steps of

electricity generation and electrolysis.

The Blue Tower

The former Ewald coal mine in Herten is the terrain where

the h2herten Wasserstoff-Kompetenz-Zentrum is buildingup the "Blue Tower" within the framework of a demonstration

project. In this plant, biomass consisting of green waste is

converted into a product gas containing hydrogen (blue

gas). The method used in the "Blue Tower" differs from

fermentation processes in that the decomposition of the

input substances (via pyrolysis at a temperature of about

600 C) and the treatment of the product gas (steam

reforming at a temperature of about 950 C) take place in

different reactors; thus, it is much easier to control the

technical processes involved. Eighty percent of the biomass

(in addition to green waste, also olive pips and chicken

manure) is converted into a hydrogen-rich synthesis gas

(50 % H2 as well as CO and CO2) and 20 percent into coke.

The heat required by the pyrolysis and reforming processes

is supplied by means of heated ceramic pebbles circulating

in a closed loop. The energy for the two heat consuming

processes is obtained from burning bio-coke gained from

the pyrolysis (Fig. 2.10). A first "Blue Tower" pilot plant was

operated in Herten from 2001 to 2006. Based on the

experience gained during this first period, the second and

larger "Blue Tower" is to demonstrate that such a plant

will soon be ready to come onto the market. According to

the investor company (Solar Millennium AG), the electricitygenerated in the "Blue Tower" will supply approximately

12,000 households in the city of Herten.

Wastewater treatment plants

Water management offers considerable potentials for

launching a sustainable hydrogen-based energy

infrastructure. In particular, wastewater treatment plants

(WWTP) providing favourable local conditions are efficient

power suppliers for stationary and mobile energy

requirements. Wastewater treatment plants exist in any

town or city (some 10,500 in Germany); located outside the

residential areas, they are well connected in terms of

infrastructural needs.


Figure 2.10: Flowchart of the "Blue Tower"

Source: h2herten GmbH (2009)

HX preheater

flue gas

heatcarriercirculation

reformersteam

biomass

pyrolysis

product gas

hotgas

furnacecoke

ash

Figure 2.11: Constructional components of the EuWak

wastewater treatment plant (Bottrop)

Source: Emschergenossenschaft (2009)

school centre Welheimer Markvehicle fleet

Emschergenossenschaft

hydrogengeneration

conversion tosubstitute natural gas

biogasproduction

wastewater sludge

hydrogenengine

electricity and heat

from wastewater sludge ...

... to clean energy


16/44


Supported by North Rhine-Westphalia and the European

Union, the Emschergenossenschaft, Germany's most

important WWTP operator, has realized a project aimed at

testing and advancing the technology of converting digester

gas to substitute natural gas. In the pilot plant set up for the

project ("EuWak Natural Gas and Hydrogen from

Wastewater Treatment Plants"), a first step serves to convert

digester gas to substitute natural gas and hydrogen, with a

certain share of substitute natural gas being diverted to a

filling station for company vehicles; in a second step, via

steam reforming, the residual substitute natural gas is

converted into hydrogen, which is subsequently delivered

via pipeline to a power generating heating plant located at

a nearby school centre, thus supplying the school with

energy (Fig. 2.11). Where biowaste is also processed in the

digestion tanks (CO fermentation), the digester gasproduction (60 to 120 normal cubic metres per hour) and

hence the quantities of hydrogen produced in wastewater

treatment plants (40 to 100 normal cubic metres) will be

increased considerably.

Figure 2.12: Flowchart of a two-step thermochemical process

Source: DLR (2009)

H2O

H2

O2

MOreducedMOoxidized

MOoxidizedMOreduced

Cycle processes: thermochemical hydrogen production

Another way to produce hydrogen on a CO2-free basis is to

use thermochemical processes involving a series of reaction

steps (typically, 2 to 4 steps) for splitting water into its

constituent elements hydrogen and oxygen. The supporting

chemical substances are reactivated and recycled; ideally,

they remain in the system without any losses. Figure 2.12

shows a two-step process. In the first step, a metal oxide

(MO) is reduced, releasing a certain amount of the oxygen

contained. In the second step, the reduced metal oxide reacts

with water vapour. Then, the oxygen combines with the metal

oxide, the metal oxide oxidizes, and hydrogen is released.

Due to the fact that in these thermochemical processes

hydrogen and oxygen are released at different stages, it is

not necessary to integrate an expensive procedure for sepa

rating hydrogen from oxygen.


17/44


Iron-oxide process

In a thermochemical cycle process heated on the basis of

concentrated solar radiation, the process operates without

emitting carbon dioxide and without using fossil resources.

Within the framework of the two EU projects HYDROSOL I

and HYDROSOL II and in cooperation with other European

partners, the DLR solar research department has developed

and "solarised" a two-step thermochemical process using

iron oxides as redox material (Fig. 2.13). The reactor is

designed for ceramic honeycomb structures coated with

iron-mix-oxide which serve both as a reaction surface for

water splitting and as a solar absorber mechanism. Via

concentrated solar radiation, the honeycomb structures are

heated up to the necessary process temperatures ranging

from 800 C to 1,200 C. With a 100-kWeI-pilot-plant installed

in the south of Spain, it has been possible for the first time

to produce hydrogen, thus demonstrating the scalability ofthis technology.

Cost, energy and ecological statements

According to a study conducted at the University of

Bochum, the lowest costs incurred by hydrogen production

were found for the process of reforming natural gas on an

industrial scale (0.07 to 0.08 euros per normal cubic metre

H2). For smaller natural gas reformers with production

capacities up to 50,000 normal cubic metres of hydrogen

per hour, the production costs are already significantly

higher (0.17 to 0.24 euros per normal cubic metre H2).

Among the regenerative production processes, the

gasification of biomass appears to be the most economical

process: the mean generation costs ranging from 0.14 to

0.17 euros per normal cubic metre of hydrogen are almost

competitive with the hydrogen production costs on the

basis of small-scale natural gas reformers. Apart from the

process of photobiological hydrogen generation which is

not yet competitive at all, the highest hydrogen production

costs were identified for the alkaline high pressure

electrolysis process combined with wind power. The results

of the study are summarized in the table below:

Figure 2.13: Pilot plant for solar thermochemical hydrogen

production on a solar tower

Source: DLR (2009)

big plants

small plants

alkaline high pressure electrolysis(wind power)

photobiological hydrogen production

Process

reforming of natural gas:

utilization of biomass(Battelle/FERCO)

H2 production costs(/Nm H2)

0.07 - 0.08

0.17 - 0.24

0.44

0.14 - 0.17

11.68 - 0.05(mean 0.54)

cost rates (%)

fuel costs (natural gas):

50 - 68 %

28 - 40 %

electricity costs:75 - 85 %

fuel costs:40 % (biomass)

investment costs:up to 92 %


18/44

18 3. Hydrogen Logistics

Hydrogen logistics covers all the elements involved in

providing hydrogen from supplying the primary energy

source to conditioning (liquid, gaseous), storing and

transporting hydrogen (gas cylinders, cryogenic tanks, trailer,

pipeline) and, finally, to fuelling vehicles. Also included are

the processes taking place at the fuelling stations such as

onsite hydrogen production via electrolysis, onsite reforming

of natural gas, vaporization of liquid hydrogen, and hydrogen

compression for refilling high-pressure gas reservoirs. The

selection of appropriate supply and storage concepts is

based on criteria such as profitability, efficiency, and

environmental impact. Thus, the most essential

infrastructural requirements are efficient and eco-friendly

facilities for supplying hydrogen as well as acceptable options

for hydrogen storage.

Supplying hydrogen

The technical elements required for the utilization of

hydrogen as an energy carrier in transportation are available,

but an effective infrastructure covering hydrogen needs in

a sustainable way is still lacking. Two innovative facilities

provide temporary solutions for the transition period the

mobile hydrogen fuelling unit traiLH2 developed by Linde

AG and the hydrogen fuelling centre including a hydrogen

pipeline network operated by Air Liquide Germany.

3. Hydrogen Logistics

Figure 3.1: traiLH2 trailer the mobile hydrogen fuelling unit on its way to

the customer

Source: Linde AG (2008)

traiLH2TM

The traiLH2 tank system (Fig. 3.1) contains a 1,000-litre

Dewar tank for liquid hydrogen stored at a temperature of

-253 C. Via two different equipments allowing speedy filling

processes, the tank can supply hydrogen both in its liquid

form and as a gas. However, providing hydrogen in its

gaseous form would require a pressurized storage tank

designed for much higher pressures. Therefore, a cryogenic

compressor is used to compress the cryogenic hydrogen at

a pressure of approximately 450 bar. This procedure

guarantees a highly efficient fuelling process: liquid hydrogen

(1,000 l LH2, corresponding to 270 l gasoline) is converted

to compressed hydrogen (GH2, 13x50 l of volume at 350

bar, corresponding to 75 l gasoline). With an integrated fuel

cell (13 kWel), the unit can be operated on a self-sufficientbasis without an external source of electricity stored

hydrogen is utilized onsite for supplying the fuel cell with

energy.


19/44

193. Hydrogen Logistics

Hydrogen filling centre and pipeline

The largest hydrogen filling centre of Europe is operated

by Air Liquide Deutschland GmbH in a technology park

located near the city of Marl. In the so-called Chemiepark

Marl, hydrogen is mainly generated via steam reforming

and then compressed up to 300 bar. Partial flows of

hydrogen are used for supplying the production plants in

the Chemiepark Marl, the filling centre, and the pipeline.

The filling of hydrogen trailers (steel cylinders) in the

filling centre is carried out at an operating pressure of

200 bar. After-treatment processes allow the realization

of qualities with a purity of up to 99.9999 volume percent.

The hydrogen filling centre at Marl supplies about 15,000

trailer vehicles with a high number of cylinders per year.

In addition, Marl is the starting point of the largest

hydrogen pipeline network with an extension of about240 kilometres (Fig. 3.2). The pipeline provides a capacity

of up to 40,000 cubic metres of hydrogen per hour at

operating pressures of up to 25 bar, ensuring not only

safe and low-cost methods of hydrogen transportation,

but also high security of supply: both peak demands and

substandard consumption by individual users can be

compensated. In future, this pipeline will serve as an

essential basis for the development of a low-cost hydrogen

infrastructure supplying mobile fuel cell applications in

North Rhine-Westphalia.

Figure 3.2: Hydrogen pipeline network (240 km)

Source: Air Liquide (2009)

Storing hydrogen

The storage of hydrogen is of crucial importance for an

economically successful utilization of hydrogen in energy

conversion systems based on fuel cells. The problem of

hydrogen storage has aroused worldwide interest. In

particular, intensive research and development efforts aim

at solving the problem in terms of three different options:

high-pressure hydrogen storage, liquid hydrogen storage,

and solid hydrogen storage.

High-pressure hydrogen storage

Compressing hydrogen in order to increase its low energy

density and storing hydrogen gas under high pressure is an

obvious and technically simple approach. The process

requires 7 (250 bar) to 9 (700 bar) percent of the hydrogen

energy as an electricity input. In terms of technicalregulations, four different constructional types are feasible.

Conventional gas cylinders are very heavy steel cylinders

(type 1). Type-2 constructions are containments with the

cylindrical part being reinforced by fibrous material which

carries about 50 percent of the load, thus reducing the

weight. For the purpose of hydrogen storage in mobile

applications with specific requirements in terms of weight

and volume, however, fully fibre-reinforced lightweight

composite tanks seem to provide the only solution (type 3

or type 4). Both types are completely covered by a super-

customer

AL oxygen pipeline

AL nitrogen pipeline

external oxygen pipeline

external nitrogen pipeline

AL hydrogen pipeline

AL hydrogen pipeline (temporarily out of operation)

production plant


20/44

resistant fibrous material. Type-4 tanks developed by

companies like Dynetek Industries are fully made of plastics,

with a plastic liner, whareas type-3 tanks are based on a

metallic liner (Fig. 3.3). Compared to conventional steel

cylinders, both tank types allow a weight reduction of about

70 percent. In addition, type-3 tanks offer the following

advantages: maximum storage efficiency (particularly thin-

walled design), flexibility with regard to different tank sizes,

and suitability for fast fuelling processes. Type-4 tanks, on

the other hand, provide the comparatively highest cost

effectiveness. At Ratingen, Dynetek Industries manufactures

composite tanks designed for pressures ranging from 200

bar to 700 bar as a basis for subsequently developing,

setting up and delivering customer-specific storage systems

ready to be fitted for installation.

Liquid hydrogen storage

Basically, the system for storing hydrogen in its liquid form

consists of two containments: the outer tank is exposed to

the weight of the atmospheric pressure whereas the high-

vacuum inner tank carries the pressure load from the inside.

Both tanks are nowadays almost exclusively manufactured

on the basis of austenitic stainless steel. Liquid hydrogen

tank systems for passenger cars allow for complete refuelling

within a few minutes. A major challenge in terms of liquid

hydrogen storage is the fact that because of heat influences

from the outside (conduction, convection, radiation), liquid

hydrogen will slowly evaporate. If no hydrogen is used over

a longer period of time, this so-called "boil-off" effect cannot

be prevented. However, it is possible to considerably lengthen

the period of time until the "boil-off" effect sets in via

sophisticated insulation systems, active cooling, or the

combination of liquid and high-pressure storage facilities.

In addition, more recent developments aim at making direct

energetic use of the "boil-off" effect in a fuel cell or storing

the waste gas for later use. Today's liquid hydrogen storage

systems for passenger cars (Fig. 3.4) have a weight of about

90 kilograms and allow for a gravimetric storage density of

about 7.5 weight percent for the smallest containments(including insulation) or of 5 weight percent for the overall

tank system.

Solid hydrogen storage

Solid state storage systems either consist of metal and non-

metal hydrides or make use of carbon-based structures

or combine the two concepts. Conventional reversible

hydride systems can store up to 1.5 weight percent of

hydrogen at room temperature. More recently, however,

experts have been investigating complex hydrides with a

storage capacity of up to 5.5 percent by weight. On the one

hand, these technological concepts are based on reversible

hydride compounds (reloading under hydrogen pressure

possible, e.g. NaAIH4), and on the other hand, on non-

reversible hydrides (reloading under hydrogen pressure not

20 3. Hydrogen Logistics

Figure 3.3: Type-3 tank

Source: Dynetek Industries Ltd. (2009)

Figure 3.4: Longitudinal section of a liquid hydrogen

storage tank

Source: Linde AG (2009)

possible without regeneration via chemical conversions, e.g.

NaBH4). For mobile applications, reversible hydride systems

are the best solution. However, the utilization of metal

hydrides as hydrogen storage mechanisms in the mobile

sector is restricted by the speed of hydrogenation requiredfor passenger cars. Reloading (refilling the tank) is supposed

to take place under the following conditions: pressures of

P < 50 bar, temperatures of T < 100 C, and refilling time

spans of t < 10 minutes. At present, there are no systems

available which could meet these requirements with

sufficiently high storage capacities. In the Max-Planck-

Institut fr Kohleforschung (Mlheim/Ruhr), experts are

developing and testing new materials on the basis of complex

aluminium hydrides which correspond to the requirements

of higher hydrogen contents (> 5 weight percent) needed

for mobile applications. The velocity at which hydrogen is

released or loaded on to the storage materials can be varied

by selecting appropriate catalysts; thus, it is possible to

adapt the properties of the storage material to the conditions

required by comprehensive systems with integrated solid

state storage and fuel cell systems.


21/44

214. Hydrogen Utilizationics

Hydrogen can be used in a variety of stationary, mobile and

portable applications requiring energy. For these

applications, fuel cell systems are being developed as a

highly efficient electrochemical conversion device: Via the

electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen, electricity

and heat are directly generated or, subsequently to

appropriate treatment, also indirectly on the basis of

methane, methanol, diesel, kerosene, and other energy

carriers.

Outline of fuel cell systems

The types of fuel cells developed today differ in terms of

electrolyte, operating temperature and reaction gas: Alkaline

Fuel Cell (AFC), Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

(PEMFC), Direct Methanol Fuel cell (DMFC), PhosphoricAcid Fuel Cell (PAFC), Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC),

and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC). The specific properties of

the fuel cells mentioned above result in different fields of

application since the various types of fuel cells (Fig. 4.1) and

the energy carriers used in the conversion process (from

hydrogen to liquid or gaseous hydrocarbon mixtures) require

very specific engineering procedures for providing the fuel

needed in the fuel cell system. Overall, the various types of

fuel cells show different operating temperatures, efficiencies,

and output ratios for the simultaneous generation of

electricity and heat.

The Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) also

Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC) will serve as an

example for describing both the function and the basic

components of a fuel cell system (Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.2).

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells consist of a

catalytically activated anode, an electrolyte membrane, and

a catalytically activated cathode. Hydrogen (H2) is fed to

the anode and dispersed over the electrochemically active

surface. The catalyst serves to decompose the hydrogen

molecule into protons and electrons. The electrolyte

membrane is permeable to protons only so that the protons

are transmitted from the anode side of the cell to the cathode

side. The cathode is supplied with air; the oxygen (O2) reacts

with electrons from the external circuit and with the protonsto produce steam (H2O), which is removed from the cell.

The electrons passing through the external circuit (via

interconnectors or bipolar plates) generate electricity. The

residual process energy is released as heat. PEM fuel cells

operating at temperatures around 60 C to 80 C are called

Low-Temperature Membrane (LT-PEM) fuel cells; in

comparison, High-Temperature Membrane (HT-PEM) fuel

cells operate at temperatures ranging from 130 C to 200 C.

4 Hydrogen Utilization

Figure 4.1: Outline of fuel cell systems (without DMFC for direct use of methanol)

Source: Netzwerk Brennstoffzelle und Wasserstoff NRW (2009)

SOFCSOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL

MCFCMOLTEN CARBONATE

FUEL CELL

PAFCPHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL

CELL

AFCALKALINE FUEL CELL

PEFCPOLYMER ELECTROLYTE

FUEL CELL

H2O

H2

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2

H2

H2

H2

O2

O2

O2

O2

CO2

O2

CO2

CO

CO2

80

100

200

600

1000

T (C)

OH -

H+

H+

O 2-

CO32-

off-gas,

product gas

off-oxidant,

product gas

e -

fuelH2, CO

oxidantO2

anode cathodeelectrolyte

H2O


22/44

22 4. Hydrogen Utilizationics

In order to achieve voltage levels suited to practical

applications, several fuel cells are connected to form a so-

called fuel cell stack. A complete fuel cell stack with

membrane electrodes, diffusion layers, bipolar plates

(between the cells), end plates, and sealing materials must

be supplemented by an electrical system, auxiliary systems,

an air supply device, and, if necessary, a fuel supply system.

Figure 4.2: Basic components of a fuel cell system

Source: Netzwerk Brennstoffzelle und Wasserstoff NRW (2009)

negative electrode/anode 2 H2 a 4 H+

+ 4 e-

positive electrode/cathode O2 + 4 e- + 4 H+ a 2 H2O

overall reaction 2 H2 + O2 a 2 H2O + electricity + heat

hydrogen

steam

bipolar plateoxygen (air)

electric user

anode (-) cathode (+)

electrode with catalyst

membrane-electrode assembly

membrane

gas diffusion layerH+

H+

H+

PEM fuel cell developments

For both hydrogen and reformed hydrocarbons as energy

carriers, the Zentrum fr BrennstoffzellenTechnik (ZBT),

Duisburg, has developed a technology for the construction

of compact membrane fuel cell stacks not only for the

conventional low-temperature type (LT-PEM), but also for

PEM fuel cells operating at a temperature of about 160 C

(HT-PEM). For the last few years, ZBT specialists have been

manufacturing an important component of the fuel cell, the

so-called bipolar plate, via the process of injection moulding,

thus meeting their own needs for the construction of low-

temperature stacks. Apart from the proton-conducting

polymer membrane and the two gas diffusion layers, bipolar

plates fulfil a variety of crucial functions in maintaining the

electrochemical process taking place in a PEM fuel cell.Bipolar plates have an active surface of 50 cm; for ZBT

purposes, they are used as components in air- or water-

cooled fuel cell stacks for a power range from 100 watt to

1,000 watt (depending on the number of fuel cells connected

in the stack). In addition, based on the experience gained

with low-temperature fuel cells, ZBT experts are developing

fuel cell stacks operating at temperatures around 160 C

which are considerably more resistant to the influence of

pollutants and, due to their high temperature level, allow for

better utilization of the heat produced (Fig. 4.3).

Figure 4.3: HT-PEM fuel cell stack with 12 fuel cells

Source: ZBT (2009)


23/44


High-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cells

HT-PEM fuel cells based on polybenzimidazole membranes

(with phosphoric acid as a dopant) typically operate at a

temperature of 160 C. Due to their high temperature level,

these fuel cells are much more tolerant to CO impurities

an advantage that is particularly important for operating

HT-PEM fuel cells in combination with reformers. Unlike

Nafion-based polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, the

membrane does not need water for conducting ions gas

moistening is not necessary. Another advantage of the HT-

PEM technology results from the high temperature gradient

between stack temperature and ambient temperature: the

design of the cooling elements can be much more compact

than for conventional PEM systems. Since 2005, the

Forschungszentrum Jlich GmbH has been involved in

research work concerning electrode development and stackdevelopment for HT-PEM fuel cells, including computing

models and simulation (Fig. 4.4).

High-temperature fuel cells: MCFC and SOFC

Due to their high operating temperatures from 600 C to

900 C, high-temperature fuel cells require other materials

than the PEFC and DMFC types of fuel cells. The components

of high-temperature fuel cells are made of ceramic materials

(cell and sealing parts) and special steel. The high

temperature level allows not only hydrogen as a fuel gas,

but also methane. More recent developments are focusing

on stationary electricity generation on the basis of natural

gas and biogenic gases from biogas fermentation or biomass

gasification as energy carriers. Basically, there are two types

of high-temperature fuel cells differing in terms of the

electrolytes (membrane materials) used and in their

constructional design. The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

(MCFC) uses an electrolyte made of lithium salt infiltrated

in a ceramic aluminium oxide matrix. At temperatures of

500 C to 600 C, the salt will become liquid and ion-

conductive so that carbonate ions can serve as load carriers

(Fig. 4.1). In any case, the MCFC requires a certain share of

carbon dioxide in the fuel gas (natural gas or biogas). MCFCplants with a power output of 250 kilowatt to 400 kilowatt

are not only used as stationary systems in industrial firms

and hospitals but also for supplying long-distance heat. The

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) as developed at the

Forschungszentrum Jlich GmbH utilizes a ceramic solid

material (zirconium oxide) as an electrolyte which will

become sufficiently conductive to oxygen ions at

temperatures of 600 C to 900 C. SOFC systems allow for

the utilization of all types of fuel gases and their mixtures,

show high efficiencies as high as 60 percent and can be

realized within a wide electrical power range from a few

watts up to hundreds of kilowatts (Fig. 4.5).

Figure 4.4: 5-cell HT-PEM stack


Figure 4.5: SOFC stack (5 kW of electrical power, operating

on the basis of methane; 30 x 25 x 25 cm)



24/44


SOFC stack production in North Rhine-Westphalia

The Australian fuel cell manufacturer Ceramic Fuel Cells

Limited (CFCL) is operating a production plant for oxide-

ceramic fuel cell stacks located in the Industrial Park of

Oberbruch, Heinsberg. In the next few years, 24 hours a

day, the plant will produce up to 10,000 stacks per year.

For the time being, an area of about 900 square metres is

used, but in future, further 3,000 square metres will be

available for extending the production facilities. CFCL is

one of the leading developers of high-temperature fuel

cells (SOFC). According to CFCL, the fuel cell system

"BlueGen" with an electrical power of 2 kilowatt shows an

electric efficiency of 60 percent. If the heat released during

the process is utilized, the overall efficiency can be

increased up to 85 percent. In cooperation with leading

research and development institutes, CFCL is conducting

research, development and test work in company-owned

plant facilities in Melbourne. The plant at Heinsberg is thefirst automatic assembly plant for high-temperature fuel

cell stacks, thus contributing technological competence

to the manufacturing scene in North Rhine-Westphalia. In

a first step, subsequently to fitting a sealing compound,

four cells are arranged on a carrier plate. Then, several of

these carrier plates are put one on top of the other,

thermally connected in a furnace (for about 24 hours), and

finally tested in a fuel cell module. At present, CFCL is

building up a global supply chain for stack components,

thus offering new business opportunities for companies

in North Rhine-Westphalia. The fuel cell stacks produced

at Heinsberg are delivered to systems manufacturers all

over the world for example, to the heating system

manufacturer Bruns Heiztechnik GmbH near Oldenburg

where the stacks are integrated into various fuel cell

devices.

Stationary applications

More than one third of energy consumption in Germany

is used in private households for room heating, hot water

supply and electricity. Since energy losses are smallest

if end energy is produced exactly where it is needed,

decentralized electricity generation with simultaneous heat

utilization is particularly attractive: The combined heat and

power (CHP) scheme is a major element in developing an

efficient energy supply system.

The best solutions to future CHP challenges are offered by

the fuel cell technology (LT-PEM, HT-PEM, and SOFC). Fuel

cells allow the simultaneous generation of electricity and

heat in residential heating systems. Natural gas is "reformed"

to a hydrogen-rich fuel gas and via the reaction with oxygen

(air) in the fuel cell directly converted into electric current.

The residual heat released during the process is directly fed

into the heating circuit and the hot water tank. High-temperature fuel cells provide the best solution in terms of

combined heat and power generation.

Figure 4.6: SOFC stack production (Industrial Park of

Oberbruch, Heinsberg)

Source: Ceramic Fuel Cells Ltd. (2009)


25/44

25

Fuel cell systems for single and multiple family houses

Since 2008, politicians, companies, and scientific institutions

have made combined efforts (Lighthouse Project "Callux")

to test and demonstrate the feasibility of some 800 fuel cell

systems (power range from 1 to 5 kWel: LT-PEM, HT-PEM,

and SOFC). Distributed over a period of 7 years, 86 million

Euros are available to the project. Within the framework of

the National Organization of Hydrogen and Fuel-Cell Tech

nology, four federal ministries (transport, economics, edu

cation, and environment) are taking part in the project. In

developing fuel-cell heaters for house heating systems,

Vaillant GmbH is concentrating on special market segments:

multiple houses, small-scale companies, and single family

houses. The utilization of high-temperature PEM membranes

is a very interesting option because the technology involved

allows for more robust, lower-cost and simpler systems thanlow-temperature PEM fuel cell systems. Another option

offered by Vaillant is the utilization of solid oxide-ceramic

fuel cells (SOFC) providing the user with a most convenient

heating and hot water supply system at reduced energy

costs Fig. 4.7).


Figure 4.8: UPS facility of Deutsche Telekom AG, Bornheim

Source: EnergieAgentur.NRW (2009)

Fuel cells in uninterrupted power supply (UPS) systems

A special field of application for fuel cells is the uninterrupted

supply of electricity. The fuel cell systems developed for this

purpose have already reached market maturity and are

widely used all over the world. The market success of these

systems is due to the fact that compared to battery and

generator solutions, an uninterrupted electricity supply

based on fuel cells shows considerable advantages:

n increased bridging capacity in case of power failure

(depending on the energy carrier stored),

n no cost expenditure for maintaining and exchanging

batteries,

n no maintenance costs for engines,

n emission-free and low-noise power supply, and

n specific solutions adapted to local needs on the basis ofdifferent energy carriers (hydrogen, methanol, propane

gas).

UPS systems for telecommunication

As early as 2005, the Power and Air Solution Management

GmbH (PASM), a subsidiary company of Deutsche Telekom

AG, first investigated the utilization potential of uninterrupted

power supply facilities based on fuel cells. Subsequently to

a preliminary test phase, the units were installed at selected

field test locations. On the occasion of the FIFA football

world championship in 2006 in Germany, two systems were

installed one in the Rheinenergie Stadium in Cologne, the

other in the Signal-Iduna Park in Dortmund. With these two

UPS systems, it was possible to increase the energy reserves

from 5 to 38 hours and from 0.5 to 23 hours, respectively.

At present, fuel cell based UPS units are utilized at various

network nodes in the Cologne-Bonn area (Fig. 4.8).

Figure 4.7: Model of a fuel cell heater developed by

Vaillant GmbH (SOFC: 1 kWel, 2.5 kWth)

Source: Vaillant GmbH (2009)


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UPS system for power switching devices

Even in the case of interruptions occurring in a high-voltage

grid, it is of paramount importance to ensure a continuous

and reliable operation of the power switching device involved.

For the time being, the necessary auxiliary energy is supplied

by stationary lead-storage batteries. However, redundancy

concepts working also in the case of longer power failures

are of essential significance, particularly for strategically

important facilities. Within the framework of a pilot project,

the transmission system operator Amprion and the systems

house H&S Hard- & Software Technologie, Dortmund, have

realized such a concept in an existing high-voltage power

switching device (Fig. 4.9). In this case, the backup system

consists of a 5-kW fuel cell system, DC/DC converter (48

V/ 220 V), service module, H2 tank unit, and a monitoring

system. With this backup system (220 V DC, nominalconsumer load of 20 A), it is possible to supply power for a

time span of around 24 hours. Longer failures can be bridged

by increasing the hydrogen storage capacity.


supply fromfuel cells

hydrogen supply fuel cell DC/DC converter

auxiliary systems inpower switching devices

centralsupplyunit

220 V DC

220 V DC220 V DC

220 V DC

400 V AC

battery

Figure 4.9: Backup system based on fuel cells in DC power supply for a power

switching device

Source: H&S Hard- & Software Technologie GmbH & Co. KG (2009)


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Mobile applications

At present, developments in terms of mobile applications

are primarily focused on the improvement of conventional

internal-combustion engines running not only on gasoline

and diesel, but also on natural gas and biofuels. Increasingly,

however, automotive manufacturers are investigating the

electrification of vehicles as a solution to future mobility

challenges:

n hybrid drive technology with fossil-based combustion

engine and larger battery in the vehicle,

n exclusively electrically powered vehicles with battery

and stored electricity from the grid, and

n fuel cell hybrid drive technology based on the conversion

of hydrogen (from the fuelling station) into electricity.

Compared to electricity, hydrogen as an energy carrier can

be stored more easily; electricity, on the other hand, can

directly be supplied by the grid and stored in the vehicle.

Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and water

are intermittent energy sources, but the electricity generated

from these sources can easily be converted into hydrogen

via electrolysis and then stored appropriately. Assuming

that an adequate infrastructure is available, this hydrogen

can either be used for electricity generation in fuel cell

vehicles or directly supplied to combustion engines.

The utilization of fuel cell systems as electrochemical energy

converters for the generation of electricity in the mobile

sector is a long-term development strategy. At the same

time, parallel and additional efforts are concentrated on

introducing battery-powered electric vehicles in special

market segments. However, in spite of the impressive

progress achieved in the battery technology (Li ion

technology), the maximum range of battery vehicles is

restricted to some 150 kilometres now and in the future:

larger onboard battery capacities will considerably increase

the weight of the vehicle and longer loading processes will

render fast "refuelling" impossible. A hydrogen tank, on theother hand, is refuelled within a few minutes, and already

today's fuel cell vehicles have a range of 400 to 500 kilo-

metres. Both vehicle concepts will find their place in the

mobility sector battery vehicles predominantly in urban

traffic, fuel cell vehicles also for long-distance transport

(Fig. 4.10).

Figure 4.11: C-MAX H2ICE with combustion engine and

compressed hydrogen storage tank

Source: Ford Forschungszentrum Aachen GmbH (2009)

Utilization of hydrogen in passenger cars

With its prototype Hydrogen 7, BMW has demonstrated the

utilization of hydrogen in the combustion engine. The vehicle

(series 7) is equipped with a bivalent twelve-cylinder

combustion engine running on both hydrogen and

conventional gasoline. The hydrogen is stored in liquid form

in a cryogenic tank. Ford, too, has introduced a vehicle with

a hydrogen combustion engine (2.3 litres piston displace-

ment, 82 kW) the monovalent C-MAX H2ICE (Fig. 4.11).

Unlike the prototype Hydrogen 7, however, the Ford vehicle

is equipped with a compressed hydrogen storage tank

(700 bars). The development of this storage system was

supported by North Rhine-Westphalia.

Figure 4.10: Mobility strategies

Source: Daimler AG (2009)

long distance traffic overland traffic city traffic

plug-in / range extender

hybrid drives

combustion engines

battery drives

fuel cell drives


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In addition, worldwide efforts are made to optimize the

conversion of hydrogen into electricity via a PEM fuel cell:

n improving durability, reliability, and feasibility (ambient

temperatures between -20 C and +45 C, cold starting,

vibration resistance, and minimum range of 400 km to

500 km),

n increasing the fuel cell life-span (minimum life-span of

5,000 hours),

n increasing the gravimetric and volumetric power

densities,

n investigating novel fuel cell operating strategies,

n ensuring heat removal, air supply and water management

(< 0 C),

n optimizing the fuel cell technology (membrane/electrolyte),

n optimizing the catalyst and minimizing precious metal

requirements,

n reducing material and manufacturing costs of certain

PEM components,

n solving vehicle integration problems, and

n reducing the overall costs of fuel cell vehicles.

Figure 4.12: Triple-hybrid concept

Source: FH Kln (2009)

AC

DC

DC

DC

DC

DC

energy

management

fuel cell

double-layer

capacitor

NiMH

battery

asynchronous

machine

DC

DC

The problem solutions developed so far are quite satisfying

and so first mini-series can be tested; moreover, a number

of vehicles have already been delivered to selected

customers on a leasing basis. More recently, in a joint

statement, several car manufacturers have announced that

as of 2015, they will mass-produce and introduce fuel cell

cars into the market. In this context, special attention is

paid to the triple-hybrid concept (Fig. 4.12), where the energy

needed for the engine is mainly supplied by a battery. Peaks

during acceleration processes are covered by a capacitor

which also serves as an intermediate storage device for the

electrical energy released during braking processes. The

fuel cell system ensures permanent reloading of the battery,

with the fuel cell constantly operating at its optimum. Thus,

power matching is not necessary an advantage that willincrease its life-span significantly. Moreover, the fuel cell

can be reduced in size so that the overall costs are

considerably lower.


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Utilization of hydrogen in buses

One of the first fuel cell-battery hybrid concepts for bus

drive systems was realized by Hydrogenics, Gladbeck, within

the framework of the EU project HYCHAIN-MINITRANS (Fig.

4.13). The basic vehicle is a battery-driven bus of the Italian

company Tecnobus, later equipped with a 10-kW fuel cell

and a NiCd-battery. The main advantage of such a midibus

is that this small fuel cell provides not only a low-cost solution

but also the same good feasibility results as bigger and more

expensive cells. With a tank load of 6 kilograms of hydrogen,

the vehicle covers a distance of around 200 kilometres (as

compared to a range of 80 kilometres for the corresponding

battery-driven bus). The bus has a length of 5.3 metres and

a width of 2.1 metres, seats 22 passengers and, at an overall

power of 27 kilowatts, yields a maximum speed of 33

kilometres per hour. Thus, the fuel cell midibus offers anideal solution for shuttle services at fairs and exhibitions.

Buses of this type are being operated at the Messe Dssel-

dorf, and since May 2009, they have also been integrated

into the regular service of the Vestische Straenbahnen

GmbH in the cities of Herten, Gladbeck, and Bottrop.

In addition, an articulated bus with an overall length of 18

metres equipped with a fuel cell triple-hybrid drive system

is being developed within the framework of a project

supported by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the

Netherlands (Fig. 4.14). Together with batteries and super

capacitors, the 140-kW fuel cell system can generate a

driving power of 240 kilowatts, thus yielding a top speed

of 80 kilometres per hour. The basic vehicle is a bus

manufactured by APTS, Helmond. The company Vossloh-

Kiepe, Dsseldorf, is responsible for the energy management

concept, and HOPPECKE Batterien GmbH, Brilon, has

developed the storage module consisting of NiMH batteries.

The Institut fr Stromrichtertechnik und Elektrische Antriebe

(ISEA), RWTH Aachen, and the Institut fr Automatisie-

rungstechnik, FH Kln, participate in developing and

simulating the energy management and storage concepts.

Hydrogen gas is stored in tanks at a pressure of 350 bars.The bus is supposed to cover a distance of 300 kilometres.

The first buses will be operated in the regular services

provided by Regionalverkehr Kln GmbH and GVB in

Amsterdam.

Figure 4.13: Fuel cell midibus

Source: Hydrogenics GmbH (2009)

Figure 4.14: Articulated fuel cell bus with triple-hybrid drive

system (240 kW)

Source: HyCologn

Hydrogen2009 Engl

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