Foreign Language Teaching Methodology

任宝贵

Part 1

Introduction

What are the necessary qualities of an

English teacher?

Necessary qualities of an English teacher

良好的教师信念

高尚的职业道德

扎实的学科知识技能

英语学科知识技能

语言学

心理学

本族语

教育学

中西文化知识

英语教学素质

英语教学理论

英语教学技能

英语教育科研能力

专业发展意识与能力

1. Teaching plan for this term 1). 教学目的要求： 一名合格的英语教师，不仅要具备扎实的语言

基本功，掌握必要的语言基本知识和基本技能，具有较强的语言交际能力，而且还要掌握一定的教育基本理论和教学基本技能，即能够根据实际需要选择并运用恰当的教学方法和技巧，具备课堂管理的能力与评价的能力，同时具有初步的外语教学研究能力，本课程的教学目的就在于使学生掌握一定的外语教育的基本理论、外语教学的基本技能，初步形成外语教育教学能力。

具体要求如下： (1). 对语言及语言学习本质的认识和科学的外

语教学观的初步形成； (2). 对中外外语教学的历史沿革与发展趋势的

概括了解； (3). 对我国中学英语教学目的、课程内容、原

则方法等基本知识的掌握；

(4). 了解各种不同英语教学法的特征及其优缺点并能适当运用于课堂教学。

(5). 区别不同英语教学法之间的异同。 (6). 了解各种不同的英语课堂活动并能够在课

堂上灵活运用。

2). 选用教材： 1. 自编教材 Foreign Language Teaching

Methodology

2. A Course in English Language Teaching 作者：王 蔷；高等教育出版社， 2001 年 7 月第二版

Class attendance 10% 2 Assignments 10% Class performance 10% Final Exam 70%

3) Evaluation

4) Learning mode

Learning and practicing

Lecturing and discussing

In English and Chinese

5) 不同内容的具体活动方式

1. 基本知识部分以讲解、讨论、提问为主。 2. 每种教学方法的学习由教师讲解、学生在微型课

上运用构成。 3. 课堂活动由学生呈现（包括介绍与运用展示）。 4. 学生活动主要为分工明确的小组活动（每组大致

为 3 人）及个人展示。 5. 每人要运用一种英语教学方法讲一节课、每组要

介绍并展示一种英语课堂活动。

教学法及课堂教学活动类型 1. 教学法包括： 1)The Grammar-Translation

Method ； 2)the Direct Method ； 3)the Oral Approach ； 4) the Audiolingual Method ； 5) the Cognitive Approach; 6) the Natural Approach; 7) the Communicative Approach; 8) the Task-based Language Teaching

2. 英语课堂教学活动必须包括： group work; pair work; role play; brain storming; guessing games. 其他活动自己查找相关材料灵活安排。

6). 教 学 进 度 第一周： General Introduction to FLM—the

nature of FLM

第二周： Theories of Linguistics

第三周： Theories of Psychology & L2 Acquisition

第四周： The Grammar-Translation Method ；第五周： The Direct Method

第六周： The Oral Approach

第七周： The Audiolingual Method

第八周： The Cognitive Approach

第九周： The Natural Approach

第十周： The Communicative Approach

第十一周： The Task-based Language Teaching

第十二周： The Task-based Language Teachin

第十三周： General Trend of Development in FLT

第十四周： The National English Curriculum

第十五周： Mini-teaching

第十六周： General review

第十七周： Final examination

联系方式 1. public email address ：

fltm2012@163.com

密码： methodology2012

2. tel. 18637960391

General Introduction of General Introduction of

FLTMFLTM

Chapter One

General Introduction: The goal of foreign language teaching —to help

the learner master the target language in the

shortest possible time.

“Mastering the target language” means that the

learner is able to have successful

communications with others in the target

language.

1. The Nature of FLTM （外语教学法的性质）

a. Foreign language teaching methodology (FLTM) is a science which studies the process and patterns of foreign language teaching.

b. Its aim is to reveal (show) the nature and laws of foreign language teaching.

c. It is an inter-disciplinary ( 跨学科） science and it makes use of many subjects (disciplines 学科 ) such as linguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics.

2. Theories of Linguistics （语言学理论）

 1) Traditional linguistics （传统语言学）

Traditional linguistics has a tradition of more than

2000 years. It was started by the Greeks in the

fifth century B.C.

The two controversies （争论） on the relations between form and meaning:

(A) The naturalists （自然发生派） argued that

the forms of words reflected directly the nature of

objects while the conventionalists （约定俗成派） thought that language was conventional and

there was no logic connection between form and

meaning of words.

(B) The other was between the analogists （类比推理派） and anomalists （变异派） — the

analogists thought that language in general was

regular and there were rules for people to follow

while the anomalists thought that language was

basically irregular and that was why there were so

many exceptions and irregularities in the Greek

language.

Question

What do you think the direct influences these

ideas have on foreign language teaching?

Traditional linguistics was practical in nature.

People made a study of language in order to

understand the classic words of ancient times and to

teach students. They often took a prescriptive （规定 的） approach when they discussed rules of

language.

Nature of traditional linguistics:

Prescriptive: Do/Don’t say X

Descriptive: People do/don’t say X

The distinction lies in prescribing how things

ought to be and describing how things are.

Examples:

1. The Chinese eat less sugar than many other countries in the world.(SB1BP2)

2.Do you have to feed plants like feed chickens? (SB1AP17)

3.All that you have to is sign your name here.

人们使用语言并不象语法学家规定的那样应该用或不应该用；口语中的语法不同于书面语。研究当今的英语口语及书面语资料库可以得出结论：英语的用法在很多方面都发生了变化。

——Chris Jacques(1994)

语法规则虽然总的说来是稳定的，但也会有小的变化，在口语的演变比在正式文章中明显。在英语教学中当然以教一般语法规则为主。对口语中的一些和语法规则不一致的习惯用法也应该提一提。

—— 丁往道

2) American structuralism （美国结构主义语言学） American structuralism started at the

beginning of the 20th century in America. It became

popular and influential in the 1930s and 40s

through the world.

The structural view of language sees language as a

linguistic system made up of various subsystems:

the sound system (phonology 音韵学 ); the discrete

units of meaning produced by sound combinations

(morphology 词法 ), and the system of combining

units of meaning for communication (syntax). Each

language has a finite number of such structural

items so as to be able to understand and produce

language.

When this structural view of language was

combined with the stimulus-response principles of

behaviorist psychology, the audiolingual approach

to language learning emerged.

The father of American structuralism : Leonard Bloomfield 布鲁姆菲尔德 (1887--1949).

He argued that linguists should describe

instead of prescribing what people say and take

an inductive approach in analyzing data .In

1933, he published the book language. It soon

become the bible of American structuralism

a. The inductive approach 归纳法 :

a way of reasoning using known facts to produce general laws

b. the deductive approach 演绎法to determine or decide (something) from general

principles in relation to a particular thing, fact or event

From the fact that Jack is a man and the principle that all men will die I deduce that Jack will die.

He thought language was a habit of verbal ( 口头的） behavior which consisted of a series of

stimuli and responses. He argued that to acquire

a language was to form a habit of verbal

behavior and learning a second language was

learning a new habit.

  3)Transformational generative linguistics ( 转换生成语言学）

The transformational generative linguistics

was first put forward by Noam Chomsky （乔姆斯基） in 1957. He wrote a book Syntactic

Structures （句法结构） to spread his theory.

a. He assumes that children are born with a

language acquisition device (LAD 语言习得机制 ).

This is made up of general principles called universal

grammar （普遍语法） . Once the child is born, the

particular language environment will trigger the LAD.

The child will use and test the principles again and

again until his hypotheses agree with the actual

grammar of the language.

Chomsky’s main points:

b. He has also made the distinction between linguistic competence and linguistic performance（ 运 用 ） . Linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge that a native speaker of that language possesses. Linguistics performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speakers

语言能力指操某种语言的人所拥有的内在化的知识，它包括理解和产出无限个句子的能力；发现句子歧义的能力；辨别句子是 否符合语法的能力；理解句子内在 结构以及察觉释义的能力。语言运用指操本族语的人产出的实际语言，是指在具体 情景中语言的 真实使用。操本族语的人 可能会在语言运用中 犯一些错误，但是这并不意味着他没有能力产出 符合语法的句子。

The LAD was offered as an explanation of why children developed competence in their first language in a relatively short time, merely by being exposed to it.

Human capacity for language has a genetic（遗传的） basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.

Different research methods of transformational generative linguistics

Transformational generative linguistics

opposes the structuralist method of taking

linguistic performance as the goal. It also attacks

the inductive approach. It believes that

linguistics should study linguistic competence of

the native speakers.

4) Functional linguistics （ 功 能 语言学）

Definition: an approach to linguistics which is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation.

研究语言学的一种方法 , 认为语言是一种社会交际的工具 , 而不是孤立看待的一个体系。

The development of functional linguistics

Malinowski 马利诺夫斯基— the precursor of functional linguistics

His conclusion —“the meaning of any single word is to a very high degree dependent on its context”

And an utterance has no meaning at all if it is out of the context of situation.

what is said by any one person before or after another person begins to speak.

Utterance ( 话语 ):

( 指任何一个人在另一个人开始说话之前或之后所说的话。 )

a. one word, e.g.

A: Have you done your homework? B: Yeah.

b. one sentence, e.g.

A: What’s the time?

B: It’s half past five.

An utterance may consist of :

c. more than one sentence , e.g. A’s complaint in:

A: I’m really fed up. I’ve told you several times to wash your hands before a meal. Why don’t you do as you’re told?

B: But Mum, listen…

utterance meaning: the meaning a speaker conveys by a particular utterance in a particular context situation. e.g.

指说话者在特定的上下文情景中用特定的话语来传达的意义。

a. I can’t tell you the time.

b. This is the reason for my being late.

c. I really have to get it repaired.

d. what about buying me another one?

My watch has stopped again could convey, according to the context situation:

In the 1960s, British linguists developed a

system of categories based on the

communicative needs of the leaner (Johnson and

Marrow, 1981) and proposed a syllabus based

on communicative functions.

The functional view

The functional view not only sees language as a

linguistic system but also a means for doing

things. Most of our day-to-day language use

involves functional activities: offering,

suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc.

Therefore, learners learn a language in order to

be able to do things with it.

In order to perform functions, learners need to

know how to combine the grammatical rules and

the vocabulary to express notions that perform

the functions. Examples of notions are the

concept of present, past & future time, and the

expressions of certainty and possibility.

Interactional linguistics

The interactional view considers language to be a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language but as importantly they need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative contexts.

Theories of Linguistics:

Traditional linguistics

American structuralism

Transformational generative linguistics

Functional linguistics

Interactional linguistics

3. Theories of Psychology and Second Language Acquisition

1) Theories of psychology ( 心理学理论 )

The first laboratory of experimental

psychology, opened by Wilhelm Wundt 冯特 , was

set up at the University of Leipzig 莱比锡 ,

Germany, in 1897. It announced the official birth

of psychology.

(1) the basic theory of Gestalt 格式塔psychology

a. Gestalt psychology appeared in the 1920s. Its

research was focused on the area of perception 感知 ,

aiming at the exploration of the relationship between

parts and whole in people’s perceptional experience. It

claimed that people perceived objects and scenes as

organized wholes before they noticed their component

parts.

b. They argued that an object was not the sum of

the individual parts. For example, an article is not the

sum of individual words that make up the article. So

people’s mind should be understood in terms of a

whole.

(2) Psychoanalysis ( 精神分析 )

The basic theory of psychoanalysis is put forward

by Freud. The theory divided the mind into

conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious

mind is only a very small part of the whole mind

while the rest remains unconscious. Psychoanalysis

aims to analyze the irrational behaviour of patients.

(3) The principles of Behaviourism ( 行为主义 ) The principles of behaviourism are as follow:

Psychologists should study what could be observed

publicly and objectively instead of considering

animal’s mental events because these things could not

be seen. Behaviourism believes that the study should

be focused on learning and the relation between

stimuli and responses.

The key point of the theory of conditioning is

that 'you can train an animal to do anything

(within reason) if you follow a certain procedure

which has three major stages, stimulus,

response, and reinforcement' (Harmer,

1983:30).

Behaviorism and language teaching

Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested that language is also a form of behavior. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviorism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in the U.S.

One influential result is the audio-lingual method,

which involves endless 'listen and repeat' drilling

activities. The idea of this method is that language is

learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement

of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately

corrected, and correct utterances were immediately

praised. This method is still used in many parts of

the world today.

(4) Cognitive psychology ( 认知心理学 )

a. The term cognition means knowledge and

“cognitive psychology” can be defined as the study

of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember

and use knowledge to guide their behaviour.

b. The three factors which have made cognitive

psychology the dominant approach in the world:

the development of computer technology; Jean

Piaget’s research work on the reasoning abilities of

children; and the work of the American linguist

Chomsky.

c. As for the acquisition of knowledge,

cognitive psychology believes that there are two

principal types of cognitive structures which are

called schemas 图式 and concepts.

The schemas refer to sets of rules that define

categories of behaviour and concepts are rules that

describe properties of events and their relations

with one another.

Children acquire schemas and concepts by

interacting with their environment with the help of

two processes — assimilation and accommodation

适应 /调整 .

The constructivism

The constructivist theory believes that learning is a

process in which the learner constructs meaning

based on his/her own experiences and what he/she

already knows.

Although constructivist theory was not developed for the understanding of language learning, it is widely applicable to learning in general. It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rote recall what is learned. John Dewey provided a foundation for constructivism. He believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive （善于发明的） , creative, critical learners.

Therefore, teachers must balance an

understanding of the habits, characteristics as

well as personalities of individual learners with

an understanding of the means of arousing

learners' interests and curiosity for learning

(Archambault,1964).

Socio-constructivist theory believes that learning

is best achieved through the dynamic （动态的；充满活力的） interaction between the teacher

and the learner and between learners. With the

teacher‘s scaffolding （支架） through

questions and explanations, or with a more

capable peers' support, the learner can move to

a higher level of understanding and extend

his/her skills and knowledge to the fullest

potential.

支架式教学（ Scaffolding Instruction ） 以“学生为主体”的支架式教学 (scaffolding instruction) 是结构主义理论提出的 重要教学方法，它强调教学 应为学习者建构理解知识的概念 框架，框架中的每一个概念是学习者进一步学习所需要的。为 此，事先要把复杂的学习任 务加以分解，以便于把学习者的理解逐步引向深入。

2)Theories of second language acquisition

language

acquisitionsecond language acquisition

first language acquisition

The learning of a native or first language is

called first language acquisition, and of a second

or foreign language, second language

acquisition. The term “acquisition” is often preferred to “learning” because the latter term is sometimes linked to a behaviorists theory of learning.

Language acquisition is studied by

linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to

enable them to understand the processes used

in learning a language, to help identify stages

in the developmental process, and to give a

better understanding of the nature of

language.

Techniques used include longitudinal studies

of language as well as experimental approaches,

and focus on the study of the development of

phonology( 语音体系） , grammar, vocabulary,

and communicative competence.

母语或第一语言的学习称为第一语言习得，第二语言或外语的学习成第二语言习得。习得这一术语通常比学习更为可取，因为后一术语有时应与行为主义学习理论连在一起。语言学家、心理学家和应用语言学家研究语言习得以便了解语言学习所运用的方法、指出发展过程中的阶段并更好地了解语言的本质。采用的方法包括对语言学习者的纵观研究及实验方法，并着重研究语音、语法、词汇及交际能力的发展。

1)Theories of second language acquisition

(1) The habit-formation theory ( 习惯形成说 )

Habit-formation theory was put forward by a group of behaviourists. According to their theory, learning a second language means the formation of a new set of linguistic habits. Imitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit-formation.

According to the habit-formation theory, the

old habit — mother tongue of the learner — will

either facilitate or get in the way of the second

language learning.

Negative transfer means the learner transfers

the ways of expression in the mother tongue to

the target language. This will cause errors.

(2)The hypothesis of linguistic universals ( 语言共性说 )

The hypothesis says there exist certain linguistic

properties which are true to all natural languages

in the world. It divides the grammar of a natural

language into core grammar and peripheral （外围的） grammar.

Human beings are born with a language

acquisition device (LAD). The second language

learners usually acquire the core grammar of

the target language and then the peripheral

grammar. The core grammar of the learner’s

mother tongue will help the learner to learn the

target language.

(3)The acculturation theory ( 文化认同说 )

The meaning of the theory: By acculturation

they mean that individuals of one culture have

to go through the process of modification （修正 ） in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in

order to function well in another culture. It

involves social and psychological adaptations

（适应） .

The relation between acculturation and

second language acquisition: The degree of

acculturation will control the degree of second

language acquisition.

Factors which determine the degree of

acculturation success: The social and

psychological distance plays a decisive role in

acculturation success. Negative psychological

factors that will increase the psychological

distance: language shock 冲 突 , culture shock,

low motivation and high ego （ 自 我 ） boundaries.

(4)    The discourse theory ( 话语交际说 )

The discourse theory argues that there is little

difference between the first language acquisition

process and the process of second language

acquisition — only through communication

discourse can the learner acquire the second

language.

(5)The monitor theory ( 自我监测说 )

The monitor theory was put forward by Krashen

in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the

following five hypotheses:

They are the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the

monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis,

the input hypothesis, and the affective filter

hypothesis.

  The acquisition-learning hypothesis ( 习得与学习假说 )

The theory claims that adult learners of a

second language have two ways of developing

their competence — acquisition and learning.

The basic distinction between language

acquisition and language learning is whether the

learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the

target language.

Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in

which learners develop their language proficiency.

Learning refers to the conscious process in which

learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target

language.

The monitor hypothesis ( 自我监测假说 )

According to Krashen's

acquisition-learning hypothesis, there are two ways

to approach language learning: acquisition and

learning.

Different functions: According to Krashen,

Acquisition helps us produce natural, rapid, and fluent

speech.  Learning, which is a conscious study of form,

helps us edit this speech.

In other words, when we learn something it won't

help us produce fluent communication, but it will help

us monitor our communication and correct minor

errors.  

accuracy:  Accuracy refers to the ability to produce

grammatically correct sentences that are

comprehensible. This is often contrasted with fluency.

fluency:  Fluency refers to the ability to produce

rapid, flowing, natural speech, but not necessarily

grammatically correct speech. This is often contrasted

with accuracy.

Three conditions — In order to perform this

monitor function, language learners have to satisfy

at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor

his production, to have his focus on form, and to

have clear knowledge of the target language.

The natural order hypothesis ( 自然次序假说 )

Same order — This hypothesis claims that foreign

language learners acquire the rules of the target

language in the same order no matter where, when

and how they are learning the language.

Speed — In Krashen’s point of view, language

teaching cannot change the natural order of

language acquisition. It can only facilitate the

speed of acquisition.

The input hypothesis ( 输入假说 )

Language input and language acquisition —

According to Krashen, the only way for people to

acquire a language is by understanding messages or

receiving comprehensive input. They move from their

current level to the next level by understanding input.

That is, we have to receive input that is just

beyond our competence but not beyond our

understanding.

Comprehensible input:  The input should be easy

enough that they can understand it, but just beyond

their level of competence. If the learner is at level i,

then input should come at level i+1.

One problem with this hypothesis is that i and i+1

are impossible to identify, though arguably teachers

can develop an intuition （直觉） for appropriate

input. That is, teachers develop an intuition of how

to speak to be understood.

However, this hypothesis was later modified

so that comprehensible input was a necessary but

not sufficient condition for acquisition.  Learners

have to also have the right environment and

circumstances to allow comprehensible input to

work. A learner's affective filter has to be low; they

have to be free of stress and motivated

The affective filter hypothesis ( 感情屏障假说 ) ( 情感过滤假说 )  Krashen argues that comprehensible input is not enough to ensure language acquisition.  Language learners also have to be receptive （善于接受的） to that input. When learners are bored, angry, frustrated, nervous, unmotivated or stressed, they may not be receptive to language input and so they 'screen' the input. This screen is referred to as the affective filter.  

Purpose — The affective filter hypothesis attempts

to explain the variation in speed of language

acquisition among individuals of the same group.

The three affective factors which determines the

speed of success — motivation, self-confidence, and

low anxiety.

Influence of the three factors — learners with high

motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will

do much better than those that are unmotivated,

lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much

with failure. That is to say, learners with a low

affective filter will get more input than learners

with a high affective filter.

(6) The cognitive theory ( 认知说 )

Cognitive psychologists regard learning as a

cognitive process because they think it involves

internal presentations （内在心理 表现） which

offer regulation and guidance （调整与引导） for

performance.

Notions — In the cognitive theory,

automaticity （自动处理） and restructuring （重新调整） are the most important notions because

learners have to select appropriate vocabulary,

grammatical rules and conventions governing

language use （制约语言运用的 准则） .

Modes — Cognitive psychologists think the

process of language communication is a kind of

information processing. When processing

information, people use two ways which are called

automatic and controlled modes. Teaching and

practice will help the learner to acquire the

automatic processing capacity.

   Different stages — The cognitive theory

holds that language learning at the beginning

stage involves more of the process of automaticity

while at the advanced stage it involves more of

the process of restructuring.

Points for Discussion

1.What are the function and result of the two

controversies in ancient Greece?

2.What are the main features of traditional

linguistics?

3.What are the contributions made by Franz

Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield to

the development of American structuralism?

4.What is the influence of behaviourism over

American structuralism?

5.What is Chomsky’s explanation of the first

language acquisition process?

6.What is the difference between linguistic

competence and linguistic performance?

7.How does transformational generative linguistics

differ in research methods?

8.What is the main feature of functional

linguistics?

9.What is the basic theory of Gestalt psychology?

10.What is the basic theory of sychoanalysis?

11.What are the principles of behaviourism?

12.What is the difference between classical conditioning

and operant conditioning?

13.What are the three factors that have helped to set up

the cognitive psychology?

14.How does the cognitive psychology explain the

acquisition of knowledge?

15.How does the habit-formation theory explain the second

language acquisition process?

16. How does the hypothesis of linguistic universals

explain the second language acquisition process?

17.How does the acculturation theory explain the

second language acquisition?

18.How does the discourse theory explain the

second language acquisition process?

19.What are the five hypotheses of the monitor

theory?

20.How does the cognitive theory explain the second language acquisition process? 21.What are the principles and consequences of the Reform Movement? 22.What is the contribution made by Daniel Jones and Harold Palmer to the development of foreign language teaching? 23.What are the reasons for the rise and fall of Audio lingual Method? 24. What are the main trends of applied linguistic research in the present period?

4. A brief history of foreign language teaching

It has been estimated that some sixty percent of

today’s world population is multilingual. Both from

a contemporary and a historical perspective （观点） , bilingualism or multilingualism is the norm

( 规范） rather than the exception.

It is fair to say that throughout history foreign

language learning has always been an important

practical concern.

The history of foreign language teaching

perhaps dates back to more than five hundred years

ago. At that time, Latin was the dominant language

of education, commerce, religion, and government

in the Western world.

In the sixteenth century, however, French,

Italian, and English gained in importance because

of political and economic changes in Europe.

Latin, then, gradually became displaced as a

language of spoken and written communication.

As the status of Latin diminished from that of a

living language to that of an “occasional” subject

in the school curriculum, the study of Latin took on

a different function. The study of classical Latin

and an analysis of its grammar and rhetoric 修辞 became the model for foreign language study from

the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries.

The history of language teaching can be traced

back to the ancient Roman when Latin was taught

as a second language. But we will only cover the

recent history of more than one hundred years.

1) The Reform Movement (1882 — 1906)

What are the principles and consequences of the

Reform Movement?

The principles of the Reform Movement were the

primacy （首位） of speech, the centrality （集中） of the connected text as the kernel of the

language teaching process, and the absolute priority

of an oral methodology in the classroom.

Dissatisfaction with the practice of teaching

modern languages by such text-based methods

came to a head in the Reform Movement of the

1880s–90s, among scholars and teachers in

Germany, Scandinavia, France, and Britain who

were interested in the practical possibilities of a

science of speech. It began with the publication

in 1877 of Henry SWEET's Handbook of

PHONETICS.

The consequences were great:

Many people took part in the Reform

Movement. A lot of books were published. An

applied linguistic approach to language teaching

began to take shape( 形成 ).

2) Modern language teaching and research (1906 — 1940)

     What is the contribution made by Daniel

Jones and Harold Palmer to the development of

foreign language teaching?

Daniel Jones was the first one that helped to

make a profession the teaching of English as a

second foreign language. And he did a lot of

research on the profession of foreign language

teaching. He wrote a number of books from his

research.

Harold Palmer tried out the Oral Method in his

teaching and did his research on the English

vocabulary. He published a lot of books on

methods of language and textbooks.

3) Structural language teaching

(1940 — 1970)

   What are the reasons for the rise and fall of Audio lingual Method?

Audiolingual Method comes from the theories

and ideas of behaviourism and structurism. It was

very popular in the 1950s. Towards the end of the

1950s, transformational generative linguistics

started a war against it and finally brought it down

from its dominant position.

4) Communicative language teaching

(1970 — )

At the end of the 1950’s, Chomsky’s

transformational generative linguistics started a

revolution in the linguistics world. And then at the

end of the 1960s, cognitive psychology came into

being and began to make its impact felt in the

world. It occurs the following aspects:

Communicative Language Teaching;

New theories of second language acquisition;

New methods of language teaching;

New approaches to language syllabus;

Exploration of the human relations.

Chapter Two

Introduction to Methods

Grammar-Translation Method

Direct Method

Audio-Lingual Method

Cognitive Approach

Functional Approach

Eclectic Approach

I. Grammar-TranslationHistory

Basic Tenets

Classroom Teaching

Advantages

Disadvantages

Suggestions

A. HistoryA. Over 300 years.B. Rooted in formal teaching of

Latin and GreekC. Still widely used, especially

in reading courses.D. Mainly developing reading

comprehensionE. Translation Method, Reading

Method, Classical Method.

B. Basic Tenets1. For reading scientific, literary

works; Developing student’s mind.

2. First learn grammar vocabulary through reading & writing.

3. Grammar taught deductively by long and elaborate explanations.

4. The mastery of grammar and vocabulary checked by translation.

Basic Tenets

5. Develop skills in translating from

& into the target language.

6. Learn language rules rather than

language use.

7. Constant comparison of the NL

and the FL is made during the

entire teaching process.

C. Classroom TeachingUsual Activities:

Explain & analyze texts, complicated grammar rules and paradigms.

Unvaried Procedure:

Read aloud the whole text, then sentence by sentence; analyze

grammatical structure; translate into native language, dwell upon( 仔细研究）

grammar; many written exercises.

D. Advantages1. Not too demanding of the teacher.

2. Students can learn much about rules and their exceptions.

3. Students are usually very good at translation, though often more grammatically than idiomatically.

4. It’s easy to test students.

5. It’s easy to control the class.

E. Disadvantages1. Poor pronunciation & intonation.

2. Weak in oral skill.

3. Can’t apply rules even in writing, much less in speaking.

4. Learn the literal language, with stilted, esoteric 深奥的 vocabulary.

5. Dull classes, and the students often overloaded.

F. Suggestion

Backward

Limited use for Listening & Speaking.

Controlled use for reading & writing.

Limited use for grammar, vocabulary.

Limited use for junior grades

Controlled use for senior grades.

II. Direct MethodTheoretical Base

Basic Tenets

Classroom Teaching

Advantages

Disadvantages

Modern Tendencies

A. Theoretical BasisStudents learn to understand a

language by listening to a great deal of it and that they learn to speak it

by speaking it—associating speech with appropriate action.

It is the way a child acquire the NL.

This is the way a child learn a SL in foreign environment.

B. Basic Tenets1. Mainly for ability to communicate and

to think in FL; 2. By direct association of foreign

words & phrases with objects & actions without NL use.

3. Speech precedes reading.4. The target language is exclusively

used.5. Grammar learned inductively, and

largely by practice.

C. Classroom Teaching

1. Introductory period.

2. Start with words for objects in classroom, with simple phrases, statements and questions.

3. Then everyday expressions.

4. Exposed to complete, meaningful sentences in the FL,

5. Paraphrase.

6. Grammar learned with practice.

7. Figure out the rule by themselves.

8. Mistake not corrected.

9. Read new words & constructions

造句 orally presented by teacher.

10. Never encouraged to translate.

11. Writing is usually taught from

the very beginning.

12. Reading limited primarily to

the written on the black board.

Textbook not used in class,

but only helps students

review lessons at home.

D. Advantages1. Students’ participation.

2. Interests for teachers & students.

3. Good pronunciation & intonation.

4. Communicative use of language.

5. Success in non-classroom settings.

6. Exciting and interesting.

7. Speaking FL in the early stages

E. Disadvantages1. Lack systematic learning of

structures and vocabulary.2. Too soon express in FL in

relatively unstructured situation.3. Glib 口齿伶俐 but inaccurate fluency

with foreign words in NL structure.4. Good for the smart, not for the

slow.5. high demand on the teacher.

F. Modern Tendencies1. Add a strictly functional

explanation of grammar in the NL.2. Add more practice of grammatical

structures.3. When difficult to explain

meanings of words and phrases, give a short NL explanation.

4. The method of translation of words and phrases as a check.

Audio-Lingual MethodRead your books and try to find the

following :Its background; theory of learning;

main features; objectives; techniques; procedure; advantages; disadvantages

III. Audio-Lingual Method

Theoretical Basis

Basic Tenets

Classroom Teaching

Advantages

Disadvantages

Modern Tendencies

A. Theoretical BasesA. Behaviorist psychology:

Mimicry模仿 -memorization of a set of phrases should be the basis for language acquisition activities.

B. Descriptive linguistics:

Practice of structures should be the fundamental components of language instruction.

C. Refined 精确的 combination of the two.

B. Basic Tenets1. Develop the same abilities that

NL speakers have.

2. The FL system be established separate of the NL.

3. Situations where students trained & conditioned for non-thoughtful, correct, and automatic responses to any stimuli, oral or written.

4. Pattern drills carried on briskly and without explanation.

5. Knowledge of grammatical rule hinders language learning.

6. The sequence of L, S, R and W be followed at least in elementary and intermediate stages.

7. Always L & S, R & W only at later stages with less attention.

C. Classroom Teaching1. Pre-reading period.

2. Memorize dialogues, practice pattern drills until automatic response to stimuli, talk with learned words & structures about topic in controlled context.

3. Reading after listening, speaking.

4. Writing comes last.

D. Advantages1. Successful in listening & speaking.

2. More scientifically & systematically arranged.

3. Thorough practice in using grammar patterns.

4. Active use of language.

5. Especially appropriate for younger and less gifted students

E. Disadvantages

1. Lack flexibility and be uncertain.

2. Boring overuse of mimicry,

memorization, pattern drills.

3. Not fully understand rules.

4. Reading & writing downgraded.

5. Considerably demanding.

F. Modern Tendencies1. Greatly shorten or eliminate the

pre-reading period.2. Explain some grammar before

pattern drills.3. Less strictly follow the natural

sequence of language learning.4. Increase the realism and

meaningfulness of the drills.5. Restrict less on NL use.

Cognitive MethodRead your textbook and try to find:Its background; theory of learning;

main features; objectives; techniques; procedure; advantages; disadvantages

IV.Cognitive MethodTheoretical basis

Basic Tenets

Classroom Teaching

Advantages

Disadvantages

A. Theoretical Basis1. One of the most recent methods.

2. It signals a rejection of stimulus-response models.

3. It signals a rejection of the idea that language is external to individual mind.

4. It signals an Encouragement of grammar teaching.

B. Basic Tenets1. Develop the same types of abilities

possessed by the native speakers.

2. Competence before performance.

3. Grammar learned deductively.

4. Learning is based on understanding.

5. Mistakes are unavoidable, necessary and natural.

6. L and S before R and W.

C. Classroom Teaching1. Introduction of New Material:

meaningfully present all the new sounds, vocabulary and structures.

2. Exercises: Comprehension questions, retelling, reciting, multiple-choice. Often done at home.

3. Application Activities: Assigned R and L passages. Guided to speak or write own thoughts.

D. Advantages1. More active use of mental power.

2. Meaningful enjoyable learning.

3. Constant use of the four skills

from the very beginning.

4. More opportunities to develop

functional performance skills.

E. Disadvantages1. Well-experienced teachers

desired.2. Teachers heavily burdened in

selecting and preparing meaningful presentations.

3. Slow student not successful.4. Practical activities and

procedures are not yet complete.5. Improvements needed.

V. Functional ApproachTheoretical Bases

Basic Tenets

Communicative Teaching

Advantages

Disadvantages

A. Theoretical Base1. Communicative Approach

2. Socially, result of the growing needs to promote European unity and coordination in education.

3. Linguistically, result of the great development of socio-linguistics and psycholinguistics.

B. Basic Tenets1. Objective

2. Factors in Course Design

3. Integrated Four Skills

4. Selective Grammar Teaching

5. Improvisation 即席创作 or Transfer

6. Communication

1. Objective

Teach all the communicative

skills consciously, with

structure and vocabulary as

the by-products.

2. Factors

a. Communicative Function

b. General Notion

c. Specific Notion

d. Communicative Settings

e. Social, Sexual, Psychological Roles of Participants

Factors

f. Language Style

g. Stress and Intonation

h. Grammar

i. Vocabulary

j. Paralinguistic(附属语言学的） Features

3. Integrated Four Skills

1. The four basic skills taught integratedly, not separately.

2. Receptive skills (L and R) before productive skills (S and W).

3. Priority given to any particular skill, according to course objective and learner’s need.

4. Grammar Teaching

Selective grammar teachinga. Items of immediate application in

communicative context.

b. Fundamentally important items at very early stage.

c. Not utterance of low frequency for the mere sake of completeness.

5. ImprovisationIt is the core of a course based

on the communicative approach.

The students are required to transfer

what they have learned in the

textbook to real-life situations as far

as possible.

6. CommunicationStudents are trained to produce

acceptable and appropriate language, but not expected to be

native speakers.

Goal for teachers and students:

Defective but Effective Communication

C. Communicative Teaching

1. No Fixed procedure.

2. Improvisation most important.

3. Grammar taught and learned in communicative context.

4. Integrated four skills.

5. Student-centered.

6. Selective methods.

D. Advantages1. Communicative competence.

2. Integrated four skills.

3. Authentic materials.

4. Acceptable,, appropriate, common.

5. Communication with grammar and situation

6. Active participation.

E. DisadvantagesWork on course and assessment,

particularly on methodology, remains to be done.

Unscientific choice of items.Obvious inherent inefficiency.

Limited syllabus.Formidable learning task.

Difficult structures at early stages.

VI. Eclectic ApproachTheoretical Base

Advantage

Disadvantage

Requirements

A. Theoretical BaseA.Recent attempt to combine habit-formation theories and cognitive-

learning theories.B.Different approaches are combined according to the needs, abilities and

interests of the learners.C.Choices are based on teachers’ particular capacities, preferences

and personalities.

B. Advantages

Flexibility:

It allows instruction to be suited to different classroom situations.

Enjoyment:

Its classroom teaching is often varied and interesting.

C. Disadvantages

Its disadvantage lies in the

possibility that it could lead to

piece-meal learning in the hands

of an inexperienced teacher.

4. RequirementsBe very familiar with basic tenets,

features, merits and drawbacks of all major methods.

Be professional aware of the current methodological trends.

Be able to choose appropriate methods and techniques in his

own teaching situation.

Ⅶ. The communicative Approach

1. Definition

2. Background 3. Theoretical Basis 4. Basic Principles 5. Advantages 6. Disadvantages

1. Definition

The communicative approach is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasize that the goal of language learning is communicative competence.

2. Background1). Development in the 1970s in the Europe2). Reaction to the structural approach to

language teaching3). The need for change in language

teaching method4). Stress on the social-cultural aspects of

language in use

3. Theoretical Basis

1 ） Theory of language ( 语言理论 ) (1)Language is for communication

( 语言是用 来交际的 ) (2) Language is used in topics,

context and setting. ( 语言是在 话题、语境和情景中使用的 )

(3) The relationship between form and meaning is not one-to -one correspondence( 语言形 式和交际意义不是一一对应的 )

(4) Discourse analysis studies: language above sentence level( 语篇分析 : 大于句子结构的语言 单位 )

(5) Pragmatics studies: how language is used in communication. ( 语用学研究 : 语言在交际中如 何运用 )

(6) Hymes and his notion of communicative competence (海姆斯和

他的“交际能力”概念 )In Hymes's view," communicative

competence " refers to the form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom.

(7)Halliday and his function account of language use (韩礼德和 他的语言

运用功能的 论 述 )

According to Halliday, a Britain linguist, social context of language use can be analyzed in term of three factors: the field of discourse, the tenor( 大意） of discourse and the mode of discourse.

(8)Widdowson and his view of forms and their communicative values(威多森

和他的语言形 式 和交际价值的观点 )

Widdowson (1978) held a view of the relationship between linguistic system and their communicative values in text and discourse .He focused on the communicative acts underlying the ability to use language for different purposes. His distinction between appropriateness and accuracy, communicative competence and grammatical competence, use and usage threw much light on CLT.

(9)Canale and Swain’s examination of communicative competence (卡纳尔和斯温对交际能力 的论 述 )

According to Canale and Swain , communicative competence entails four dimensions （维度） . They are grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.

(10) Richards and Rodgers’ summary of the communicative view of language ( 理查德和 罗杰斯对交际语言观的 总结 )

A. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

B. The primary function of language is to allow interaction and communication .

C. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

D. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features ,but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

2) Theory of learning ( 学习理论 )

A. Communicative Language Teaching should follow the natural acquisition ( 交际语言教学 应遵循自然的语言习得 过程 )

B. Language is best learned through use in social context . ( 语言学习的 最佳途径是在社会环境中的运用学习 )

C. Effective language learning will take place if emphasis is on communication .( 如果 强调交际，外语学习 将会更加 有效 )

D. Language learning is a process of meaning negotiation .( 语言学习是一个有意义的 协商过程 )

4. Basic Principles 1) Main features ( 主要特征 ) A. Emphasis on learning to

communicate in the target language

B. The introduction of authentic text into learning situations

C. Focus not only on language but also on the learning process itself

D. Making use of learners’ own personal experiences

E. Creating real communication situations in the classroom ; linking classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom

The role of the teacher ( 教师的作用 )

1.A facilitator of students’ learning 2.A manager of classroom activities 3.An adviser of students’ questions 4.A co-communicator in the

communicative activity

The role of the learner : ( 学习者的作用 )

1. A negotiator 2. A communicator 3. A contributor 4. An independent learner

2) Objectives ( 教学目 标 )

A. Knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language ( 掌握语法知识和 词汇 )

B. Knowledge of rules speaking ( 掌握话语规则的知识 )

Knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts ,such as requests, apologies ,thanks and invitations( 知道如 何运用不同的言语行为，如请求，道歉， 感谢， 邀请等，并知道如 何对其做出正确 的 反应 )

3)Techniques ( 教学技巧 )

A. developing listening and note – taking skills by using audio – video materials

B. giving oral presentation C. role –play and simulation

Ways of developing separated skills (集中提高某 项语言技能的方法 )

A. Listening :

putting in correct sequence following directions on a map; checking off items in a photograph; completing a grid, time table ,or chart

B. Speaking : games; problems solving activities

; simulation / role –play; personal responses

C. Reading : skimming; scanning; text

unscrambling(整理） ; information transfer

D. Writing: (mainly done in three steps)

gathering ideas; working on draftspreparing the final version

4) Teaching Procedure ( 教学步骤 )

A. Presenting and comprehension (Students listen , then answer questions)

B. Demonstration of functional patterns (The teacher exemplifies each functional patterns )

C. Practicing function patterns (students practice the dialogue in pairs.)

D. Free production (Students make minidialogues of their own )

E. Creative production (Students work in groups .)

F. Checking students ‘ work G. Reading new material (integrating

reading and writing ) H. Writing based on reading

5. Advantagesa) Wider consideration of what is

appropriate and what is accurate .（对语言的得体 性和准确性有了更广泛的认识）

b). Wider range of language(涉及语言层面更加宽泛 )

c). Realistic and motivating language practice （提供真实并能用学习者积极性的语言 训练）

d). Drawing on learners’ knowledge and experience ( 能够利用学习者的知识和经验 )

6. Disadvantagesa). Difficult to tailor syllabus to students’

needs( 在制订教学大 纲时难以满足学生的需要 )

b). Fossilization of learners’ errors( 学生的语言 错误会形成固定的习 惯 )

c). Unclear about how rules of use can be taught( 如何教语言规则的使用是 模糊的 )