Ess Hs 2009 Shepherd Je
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California Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA USA 91125
. . .
Presented at
The Fourth European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety
Coralia Marina Viva, Corsica, France
7th – 16th September 2009,
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Topics
A. Introduction
B. Ideal Blast Waves
C. Mechanics and Strength of Materials
.
E. Modeling Structural Response
. –
G. Internal Explosions – Deflagrations and Detonations
.
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Introduction
Ex losions create hi h- ressure, hi h-tem erature ases that can cause:
1. Mechanical failure due to pressure or blast waves or internal pressure build-up.
1. Permanent deformation or equipment or structures
.
3. Creating flying fragments or missiles
4. Blast, fragment or impact injury
2. Thermal failure due to heat transfer from fireball or hot combustion products.
1. Softening of metal structures
2. Ignition of building materials, electrical insulation, plastic or paper products
.
3. Combination of fire and explosion, thermal and mechanical effects often occur.
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Mechanical effects from high pressure
• Expansion of combustion products
due to conversion of chemical to
creation of gaseous products inhigh explosives
explosions depends on
thermodynamics
chemical kinetics and fluid
mechanics
–
– Detonation velocity
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Thermal effects from high temperature
• Hot gases radiate strongly in IR, particularly for sooting
ex losion like BLEVE.
– Fireballs cause injury (skin burns) and secondary ignition of structures
• Internal explosions create high-speed gas and convective heat
rans er n a on o ra a on – Heat up equipment, ignite flammable materials
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Fragment effects from structural failure
• Primary fragments
– Created by rupture of vessel or structure –
– Follows a ballistic trajectory
• Secondary fragments
– Created by blast wave and following flow
– Accelerated by flow, eventually follows a ballistic trajectory
•
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Pasadena TX 1989 – C2H4 Flixborough 1974 - cyclohexane
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Port Hudson 1974 – C3H8
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Pasadena TX 1989
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Nuclear Blast Wave Damage – 5 psi (34 kPa)
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Effects of High Explosive Detonation
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Truck Bomb – 4000 lb TNTe
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Response of a Large Structure is Complex!
• as e ec s cause a sma num er o co umns anslabs to directly fail
•
progressive collapse• In Murrah Buildin , 40% of floor area destro ed due
to progressive collapse, only 4% due to direct blast.
• Factors in progressive collapse – Building design (seismic resistance can help)
– Fires can weaken structural elements (WTC)
understand or predict response
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Preview – Structural Response Analysis
• First, estimate static capacity of structure. Failure can occur to do either – Excessive stress – plastic deformation or fracture makes structure too weak for
service
– Excessive deformation – structure not useable due to leaks in fittings or misfit of
components (rotating shafts, etc).• Second, what are structural response times?
• Lar e s ectrum for a com lex structure
• Single value for simple structure
– How do these compare to loading and unloading times of pressure wave?
• Loading time• Unloadin time
• Third, estimate dynamic peak deflection and stresses based on responsetimes and loading history – High peak load is acceptable if duration is short (impulsive case)
– ower pea oa m ura on s ong an rap y app e su en case
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Structural Response
• Structures move in response to forces (Newton’s
– Structure has mass and stiffness
– Structure “ ushes back”
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Determining structural loads
• Load generally means “applied force” in this
.
due to pressure differences created by theex losion rocess. Pressure differences across
components of a structure create forces on the
structure and internal stresses.• Three simple cases
– External explosion
– Blast wave interaction – Internal explosion
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External Explosion
• Explosion due to accidentalvapor cloud release andi nition source startin acombustion wave
• Flame accelerates due toinstabilities and turbulence dueo ow over ac y s ruc ures
• Volume displacement of
combustion (“source of volume”)
motion locally and at a distance
– Blast wave propagates awayfrom source
Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosion (UVCE)
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Blast Wave Interaction
• Blast wave consists of
– Leadin shock front
– Flow behind front• Pressure loading
– nc en an re ec e pressure
behind shock
– Stagnation pressure from flow
• Factors in loading
– Blast decay time
–
– Distance from blast origin
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Internal Explosion
• Can be deflagration or detonation• Deflagration
– Pressure independent of position, slow
• Detonation
– Spatial dependence of pressure
– Local peak associated with detonation wave formationand propagation
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Loading Histories
• Pressure-time histories can be derived
from several sources
– Experimental measurements Slow flame in vessel
– Analytical models with thermodynamic
computation of parameters
– Detailed numerical simulations using
– Empirical correlations of data
– Approximate numerical models of blast
wave propagation (Blast-X)
• Characterizing pressure-time
histories
– Single peak or multiple peaks
– Rise time – Peak pressure
– Duration
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 19Ideal blast wave
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Ideal Blast Wave Sources
Simplest form of pressure loading – due concentrated, rapid release of energy
High explosive or “prompt” gaseous detonation. Main shock wave followed by
pressure wave and gas motion, possibly secondary waves.
Inside Explosion
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Pfortner
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Blast Wave from Hydrogen-Air Detonation
Outside
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Blast and Shock Waves
• Leading shock frontpressure jump determinedby wave speed – shock
Mach number.• Gas is set into motion b
shock then returns to rest
• Wave decays with distance – Peak pressure rise
– Impulse
– os ve an nega ve p asedurations
Specific impulse!
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Scaling Ideal Blast Waves I.
• Dimensional analysis (Hopkinson 1915, Sachs 1944, Taylor-
Sedov
– Total energy release E = Mq• M = mass of explosive atmosphere (kg)
• =
– Initial state of atmosphere Po or o and co
• Limiting cases – Strength of shock wave
• Strong P >> Po
• Weak P << Po
– Distance from source• Near R ~ Rsource
• Far R >> Rsource
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Scaling Ideal Blast Waves II.
• Scale parameters
– Blast length scale Rs = (E/Po)1/3
– Time scale Ts
= Rs/c
o – Pressure scale
• ose o exp os on exp usua y oun e y CJ
• Far from explosion Po
• Relationshi s:
– pressure P/Po
– distance R/Rs
P = Po F(R/Rs)
– time t/Ts
– Impulse (specific) I/(Po Ts)
=o s s
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Cube Root Scaling in Standard atmosphere
• Simplest expression of scaling (Hopkinson)
– At a given scaled range R/M1/3, you will have the same
scaled impulse I/M1/3
and overpressure P – When you increase the charge size by K, overpressure will
remain constant at a distance KR, and the duration and
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.
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TNT Equivalent
• ea as wave rom gaseous exp os on equ va en o afrom High Explosive (TNT) when energy of gaseous explosive
is correctly chosen
• Universal blast wave curves in far field when expressed inSachs’ scaled variables
of the heat of combustion (Q = qM)
• For nonideal gas explosions (unconfined vapor clouds), E is
quite a bit smaller. Key issues: – How to correctly select energy equivalence?
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–
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Energy Equivalent for Common Explosives
Explosive Q (MJ/kg) Density
(g/cc)
CJ velocity
(km/s)
CJ
Pressure
ar
TNT 4.52 1.6 6.7 210
. . .
HMX 5.68 1.9 9.1 390
. . .
C6H14 45 (1.62) 0.66 1.8 0.018
H2 100 2.7* 8.2E-5 1.97 0.015
Values from Baker et al.
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or ue -a r m x ure
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Scaling of Blast Pressure – Ideal Detonation
Comparison of fuel-air
Work done at DRES
(Suffield, CANADA) in 1980s
Moen et al 1983
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Scaling of Impulse – Ideal Detonation
Surface burst
Air burstMoen et al 1983
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For the same overpressure or scaled impulse at a given distance, M(surface) = 1/2 M(air)
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Energy scaling of H2-air blast
Energy Equivalence
100 MJ/kg of H2
or
-.
mix for stoichiometric.
Shepherd 1986
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Hydrogen-air Detonation in a Duct
• Blast waves in ducts decay
much more slowl than
unconfined blasts
P ~ x-1/2
• u p e s oc waves
created by reverberation of
transverse waves withinduct
• Pressure profile approaches
large distances.
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Thibault et al 1986
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Interaction of Blast Waves with Structures
Blast-wave interactions with multiple
structures LHJ Absil, AC van den Berg,
J. Weerheijm p. 685 - 290,
oc aves, o . , . turtevant,
Hornung, Shepherd, World Scientific,
1996.
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Idealized Interactions
Enhancement depends:
Incident wave strength
Angle of incidence
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“Explosions in Air” Baker
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Nonideal Explosions
• Blast pressure depends on magnitude of maximum flame
• Flame speed is a function of – Mixture composition
– ur u ence eve
– Extent of confinement
• There is no fixed energy equivalent – E varies from 0.1 to 10% of Q
• Impulse and peak pressure depend on flame speed and sizeof cloud – Sachs’ scalin has to be ex anded to include these
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Pressure Waves from Fast Flames
Sachs’ scaling with addition parameter – effective flame Mach number Mf . Numerical
simulations based on ‘porous piston’ model and 1-D gas dynamics.
Tang and Baker 1999
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What is Effective Flame Speed?
Consider volume displacement
of a wrinkled (turbulent) flame growing in
a mean spherical fashion.
Expansion
ratio
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Forces, Stresses and Strains
• Loading becomes destructive when forces are
or else the forces (or thermal expansion) createstresses that exceed ield stren th of the material.
• Important cases
– Rigid body motion – fragments and overturning – Deformation due to internal stresses
• Bending, beams and plates
• em rane s resses, pressure vesse s
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Rigid Body Forces due to Explosion
• Pressure varies with position
and time over surface – has
to be measured or
computed
• Local increment of force on
surface due to ressure onlin high Reynolds’ number
flow
Geometry and distribution of pressure willresult in moments as well as forces!
Be sure to add in contributions from bod
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forces (gravity) to get total force.
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Consequence of Forces I.
• Rigid body motions
– Translation
– Rotation
’
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– cm
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Internal Forces Due to an Explosion
• Force on a surface element dS
•
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Consequence of forces – small strains (<0.2 %)
• Elastic deformation
•
• Elastic shear
Youngs’ modulus E, shear modulus E, and Poisson ratio are material properties
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Consequences of forces – large strains
• Onset of yielding for ~
• Necking occurs inplastic regime > Y
• Plastic instability and
rupture for > u
•plastic deformation
Plot is in terms of engineering stress and strain, apparentmaximum in stress is due to area reduction caused by necking
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Stress-Strain Relationships
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Yield and Ultimate Strength
• Yield point YP determined by uniaxial tension test
• .
Extension of tension test to multi-axial loading: – Maximum shear stress model max < YP/2
– on ses or oc a e ra s ear s ress cr er on
• Onset of localized permanent deformation occurs well beforecomplete plastic collapse of structure occurs.
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Some Typical Material Properties
E G y u rupture
Material (kg/m3) (GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Aluminum 6061-T6 2.71 x 103
70 25.9 0.351 241 290 0.05
Aluminum 2024-T4 2.77 x 103 73 27.6 0.342 290 441 0.3
Steel (mild) 7.85 x 103
200 79 0.266 248 410-550 0.18-0.253
ee s a n ess . . - - . - .
Steel (HSLA) 7.6 x 103
200 0.29 1500-1900 1500-2000 0.3-0.6
Concrete 7.6 x 103
30-50 20-30 - 0
Fiberglass 1.5-1.9 x 103
35-45 - 100-300 -3
. - . . -
PVC 1.3-1.6 x 103
0.2-0.6 45-48 - -
Wood 0.4-0.8 x 103
1-10 - 33-55 -
Polyethylene (HD) 0.94-0.97 x 103
0.7 20-30 37 -
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Considerations about material properties
• Simple models:
–
,
– elastic perfectly plastic• More realistic models
ddt
– Strain hardening Y ()
– , Y
–
Y
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f S f
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Mechanism of Structural Deformation
• Stress waves
–
– Short time scale
• Flexural waves
– Shock or detonation propagation inside tubes
– Vibrations in shells
• ens on or compress on
– Deforms shells
•
– Bends beams and plates
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Pressure Loading Characterization
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Pressure Loading Characterization
P
• Structural response time T vs. loading and unloading time scales
• Peak pressure P vs. Capacity of structure
• Loadin re imes
– Slow (quasi-static), typical of flame inside vessels T << L or u – Sudden, shock or detonation waves L << T
• Short duration – Impulsive U << T
•
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- U
St ti D i
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Statics vs. Dynamics
• Static loading T << l, u
–
characteristic structural response time – Inertia unimportant
– Response determined completely by stiffness, magnitude
of load.
• Dynamic loading T ≥ l, u
– Loading or unloading time short compared to characteristic
– Inertia important
– Res onse de ends on time histor of loadin
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St ti St i S h i l Sh ll
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Static Stresses in Spherical Shell
• Balance membrane stresses
with internal ressure
loading
• Force balance on equator R
•
R
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Validate only for thin-wall vessels h < 0.2 R
St ti St i C li d i l Sh ll
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Static Stresses in Cylindrical Shells
• Biaxial state of stress
•
projected force on end caps.
• Radial (hoop) stress due to
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Bending of Beams
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Bending of Beams
• Force on beam due to
inte rated effects of
pressure loading
• Pure bending has no net
• Deflection for uniform
loading
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Stress Wave propagation in Solids
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Stress Wave propagation in Solids
• Dynamic loading by impact or high explosive detonation in contact with structure
• Two main types
– -,
– Transverse (shear, S-waves
• Stress-velocity relationship (for bar P-waves)
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Is direct stress wave propagation important?
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Is direct stress wave propagation important?
• Time scale very fast compared to main structural
res onse T ~ L/C
Cl (m/s) Cs(m/s)Steel 6100 3205
– Average out in microseconds (10-6
s)
Aluminum 3205 3155
• Stress level low compared to yield stress
Y -
Direct stress propagation within the structural elements is usually
not relevant for structural response to gaseous explosions. Important for high
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exp os ve w en s ruc ure s very c ose or n rec con ac w exp os ve
Vibration of Plates Beams & Structures
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Vibration of Plates, Beams, & Structures
• Element vibrations
–
– Plates or beams
– Modes of flexural motion
• Standing waves, frequencies i
• Propagating dispersive waves (k)
• Coupled motions of entire structure
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Free Vibration of Clamped Plate
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Free Vibration of Clamped Plate
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Transient Response of Clamped Plate
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Transient Response of Clamped Plate
Morse and Ingard
Theoretical Acoustics
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Two Special Situations
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Two Special Situations
• Loading on small objects
– Re resent forces as dra coefficients de endent on sha e and
orientation and function of flow speed.
F = ½ V2 CD(Mach No, Reynolds No) x Frontal Area
.
– Thermal stresses are stresses that are created by differential thermal
expansion caused by time-dependent heat transfer from hot explosion
.heating, which is a very important factor in fires which occur over very
much longer durations than explosions.
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Determining structural response
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Determining structural response
• Issues
–
• depends on time scale of response compared to that of load – impulsive (short loading duration)
– sudden (short rise time)
– quasi-static (long rise time)
– Elastic or elastic-plastic• depends on magnitude of stresses and deformation
– yield stress limit appropriate for vessels designed to contain
explosions
– maximum displacement or deformation limit appropriate fordetermining or preventing leaks or rupture under accident conditions
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Simple estimates
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Simple estimates• Strength of materials approach assuming equivalent static load
– Useful only for very slow combustion (static loads) and negligible thermal load
• Theory of elasticity and analytical solutions
– ’
– dynamic solutions available for simple shapes – mode shapes and vibrational periods are tabulated.
– Energy methods with assumed mode shapes (Baker et al method)
– Analytical models for traveling loads available for shock and detonation waves
– Transient thermo-elastic solutions available for sim le sha es
• Theory of plasticity
– rigid-plastic solutions available for simple shapes and impulsive loads.
– Energy methods can provide quick bounds on deformation
• – Test data available for certain shapes (clamped plates) and impulsive loads
– Pressure-impulse damage criteria have been measured for many items and people subjected to blast loading
• Spring-mass system models
–
– multi-degree of freedom
– elastic vs plastic spring elements
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Simple Structural Models
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S p e St uctu a ode s
• Ignore elastic wave propagation within structure
• Lum mass and stiffness into discrete elements – Mass matrix M
– Stiffness matrix K – Dis lacements X
– Applied forces Fi
• Equivalent to modeling structure as coupled “spring-mass”
• Results in a spectrum of vibrational frequencies Icorresponding to different vibrational modes – Fundamental lowest mode usuall most relevant
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Single Degree of Freedom Models (SDOF)
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g g ( )
• Effective mass M
• One displacement motion X• =
• Equivalent to spring-mass
s stem• Elastic motion is oscillation of
displacement x = X-Xo with
period T
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 66T
Forced Oscillation of SDOF system
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y
• Blast wave characterized by
– Peak pressure P
p
– Decay time
• Forced harmonic oscillator,t
F(t) = AP(t)
• Response is forced oscillation
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 67
Example of SDOF Modeling
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p g
• Radial oscillation of cylindersR
h
P(t)x
• Bending of beams or columns
Frequencies are “lowest or fundamental mode” – these are usually the most important modes for
structural res onse to ex losions.
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 68
Modes of Beam Oscillation
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7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 69
–
SODF - Square Pulse
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7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 70
SDOF -Impulsive Regime
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• Sudden load application, shortduration of loading << T
• Linear scaling between maximum
strain/ displacement and impulse
in elastic regime:• Impulse generates initial velocity
•maximum deflection
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 71
SDOF – Sudden regime
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• Quick application of load and long duration
>>u
• Peak deflection is twice static value for same maximum
load
FMax force
displacement
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 72
T
SDOF – Static Regime
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• Very slow application of load – (quasi-static) no
T << u or L
FMaxforce
displacement
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 73
T
SDOF - D namic load factor DLF
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SDOF D namic load factor DLF
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 74
SDOF - Plasticity
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• Replace kX with nonlinear
relationshi based on flow
stress curve ()
• Energy absorbed by plasticwor s muc g er an
elastic work
• Peak deformation forimpulsive load scales with
impulse squared.
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 75
Pressure-Impulse (P-I) Structure Response
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• More realistic representation of response
• max ,
between peak pressure (P) and impulse (I)
Shock wave with
exponential tail
Limiting cases:
1. Short pulse – impulse
determines damage
. ong pu se – pea
pressure determines
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 76
P-I Damage thresholds II
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1000
800
- s )
400 I m p u l s e ( P
50-75% demolished
200minor damage
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 77From Baker et al.
Overpressure (kPa)
P-I Damage Thresholds II
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Ear drums
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 78
Example
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• Blast wave from 50 lbs TNT equivalent at 100 ftrange
• Use charts or correlations from Dorofeev
E = 4.52x50/2.2 = 103 MJ Rs = (1 x 108 / 105 )1/3 = 10 m or 33 ft
R* = 30.5/10 = 3 P* = 0.085 or P = 1.25 psi (8.5 kPa)
I* = 0.012 T = 3/340 = 8.8 ms I = 10 Pa s
These are “side-on” parameters, normal reflection will approximately double
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 79
overpressure an mpu se n s reg me.
P-I Results
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Brick structures Ear drums
800
1000
400
600
I
m p u l s e ( P a - s )
50-75% demolished
0
200minor damage
0 20 40 60 80 100
Overpressure (kPa)
Your ears wi ll be ringing but the building is undamaged!
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 80
Numerical simulation
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• Finite element models
• vibration: mode shape and frequencies
• dynamic
– transient response to specified loading
– elastic
– lastic/fracture
• Numerical integration of simple models with
com lex loadin histories
– spring-mass systems
– Elasticit with assumed mode sha e
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 81
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Example: Cantilever Beam
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 82
Blast Incident on a Cantilever Beam
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• Blast loading of a
• Forces – Initial impulse of shock
– Flow and drag
• Elastic response
– Giordona et al• plastic response
– Van Netton and Dewey
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 83
Forces on Blast-loaded Cantilever
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• Shock wave interaction
– Sudden load to arrival of
shock and propagation
around cylinder – Usuall im ulsive
• Following flow
– Continuous load due to
cylinder.
– Transient drag loading
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 84
, –
Force due to flow induced by blast wave
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Van Netten and Dewe , Shock Waves 1997 7: 175–190
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 85
Initial stages of shock diffraction over a cantilever beam
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shock wave passes over
the beam there is nodeflection.
Purely elastic case.
Computation (right)
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 86
Giordano et al, Shock Waves 14 (1-2), 103-110, 2005.
Later stages of diffraction over a cantilever beam
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After some time, the
beam starts to deform.
Dynamic response of
beam and inertia are
.
Purely elastic case.
Experiment (left)
Computation (right)
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 87
Giordano et al, Shock Waves 14 (1-2), 103-110, 2005.
Applied Load and Oscillations of Beam
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Note the harmonic motion of thebeam after incident and reflected shock.
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 88
Giordano et al, Shock Waves 14 (1-2), 103-110, 2005.
Plastic Deformation of Blast loaded Cantilever
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Permanent deformation of
beam due to formation of a
“plastic hinge” at the base.
Stresses exceed the yield
strength of the material and
bent over. Deflection
depends on loading history.
Can be used as a “blast
gage” for ideal explosives.
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 89
Van Netten and Dewey, Shock Waves (1997) 7: 175–190
Shock tube experiments
Deformation of a 200 mm long 1 55 Final angle of deformation for 50 mm
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Deformation of a 200 mm long, 1.55mm dia aluminum rod due to a M =
1.23 shock, 1 ms intervals
Final angle of deformation for 50 mmlong, 1 mm dia solder rods.
Van Netten and Dewey, Shock Waves (1997) 7: 175–190
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 90
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Deflagrations and Detonations in Vessels
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 91
Creation of flow by Explosions I.
• ames crea e ow ue o expans on o pro uc s pus ng
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• ames crea e ow ue o expans on o pro uc s pus ngagainst confining surfaces
• -
– Expansion ratio u
– Flame velocity eff
T f T f S A AS V /
b
– Flow velocityeff
T
eff
T f S S V U )1(
Burned (u =0) V f Unburned u > 0
flame
T
Blast wave
u = 0
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 92
Creation of flow by Explosions II
• Detonations and shock waves create flow due to
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• Detonations and shock waves create flow due toacceleration by pressure gradients in waves
• ons er gn on o e ona on a e c ose -en o a u e
Burned (u =0) Burned u >0 Unburned u = 0
Expansion wave
wave
u
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 93
x
Internal Explosion - Deflagration
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• Limiting pressure determined by thermodynamic
– Adiabatic combustion process
– Chemical equilibrium in products
Combustion wave
– Constant volume
• Initial pressure-time history determined
ro ucts
=
Sf u
fuel-air mixturef f
Vf
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 94
Pressure in Closed Vessel Explosion
Peak pressure limited by heat transfer during burn and any
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Peak pressure limited by heat transfer during burn and any
Venting that takes place due to openings or structural failure
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 95
Burning Velocity
•Laminar burning speed depends on substance composition
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Laminar burning speed depends on substance, composition,pressure, temperature
,
much higher
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 96
Adiabatic Explosion Pressure
• Pressure of products if there are no heat losses and complete reaction occurs
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• Pressure of products if there are no heat losses and complete reaction occurs
• Energy balance at constant volume
Ereactants(Treactants) = Eproducts(Tproducts)
Vreactants = Vproducts
P = P N T /N T
• Products in thermodynamic equilibrium
• For stoichiometric HC fuel-air mixtures: Pp ~ 8-10 Pr
- , ,• Values are similar for all HC fuels when expressed in terms of equivalence
ratio.
•
occurs
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 97
Measured Peak Pressure vs Calculated
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7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 98
Structural Response to Deflagration
• Quasi static pressurization
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• Quasi-static pressurization
–
• Structure response can be
– Thermochemical computations
–• Internal pressure
• Thermal stress
8/31/2009 99
Thermal Stress from Deflagrations
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• .
insulated on the inside with 6
mm of neoprene.
Neoprene
insulation
6mm
Ignition
insulation
S0 S1 S2 S3 S4 -
8/31/2009 100
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•
of 50 ms
• Contribution to hoopstrain is about 125% of
peak value due to
mechanical loading
alone.
• Dominates long-time (>
100-200 ms)
observations
8/31/2009 101
Structural failure due to deflagration
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Aviation kerosene (Jet A) at 40 C, pressure of .58 bar (14 kft pressure altitude)
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 102
Detonations in Piping
A id t l l i
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• Accidental explosions
• o en a azar n
– Chemical processing plants
– Nuclear facilities
• Waste processing
• Fuel and waste storage
• Power lants
• Test facilities
– Detonation tubes used in laboratory facilities
– e es ns a a ons vapor recovery sys ems
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 103
Recent Accidental Detonations in NPP
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Hamaoka-1 NPP
Brunsbuettel KBB
Both due to generation of H2+1/2O2 by radiolysis and accumulation in
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 104
s agnan p pe egs w ou g -po n ven s or o -gas sys ems.
Explosion Scenario
Plug of waste material Radial motion of pipe wall
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L
“ bubble” of explosive gas (H2-N2O) ignitionExplosion wave propagation
Motion of piping
8/31/2009 105
Bubble
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Propagating
detonation
Reflected
detonation
Deflagration-to-Detonation
Transition followed by
reflection PRC-DDT
8/31/2009 106
Example of Bubble Explosion
Hoop strain [Pa]D=127 mm
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t=13 mm
m
L = 1 . 2 4
P
u b e a
x i s
8/31/2009 107
factor: 2000
H2-N2O Explosion Pressure Estimates
60 Reflected CJ
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60Detonation
40
50
0
30 P / P
CJ Detonation
10
20 CV Explosion
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
3
8/31/2009 108
2
Radial (Hoop) motion of Pipes:
o e
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o e
surface
P(t)x
R
ssumes ra a an ax a symme ry o oa
Stress in hoop direction is restoring force E hoohoo
Results in harmonic oscillator for tube
reduced
frequency
reduced
driving force
8/31/2009 109
Dynamic Loading Factor
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1.6
1.8
.
1.0
1.2
1.4
c l o a d f a c t o r
Quasi-static
0.4
0.6
0.8
d y n a m
i
Impulsive
0.0
0.2
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
8/31/2009 110
T
Effect of load localization
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Infinite thin-walled
(R/t>10) cylinder ofradius R under
uniform radial
pressure p over
.
p
w
2R
8/31/2009 111
Load Length Factor
1 2
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1.2 n
0.8
1
i s p l a c e m
0.6
s t r a i n o r
4/12 )1(3
0.2
.
n o r m a l i z e
0 2 4 6 8 10
w*
8/31/2009 112
BOC Methodology
Estimate loadin sin SDOF model and acco nt
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• Estimate loadin usin SDOF model and accountYield stress
for finite length of load.
Y hoop wF RP
P
max
0max,
0
From explosion
pressure
estimate
Diameter andSchedule of DynamicLoad Factor Load length factor
8/31/2009 113
Hazard larger for bigger, thinner pipes
6 Schedule 10
Schedule 40
0.2% strain limit for reflecteddetonation pressure in H2-N2O
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Schedule 80
4 e ( b a r )
Schedule 160
WT1
WT2
WT3
2-in schedule 40
3
t i a l p r e s s u r
.
2
M a x i n
i
0
10-in schedule 40
8/31/2009 114Radius/thickness
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7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 115
Detonations are
ressure waves
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Austin & Shepherd 2003
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 116
Detonation Followed by an Expansion Wave
“Taylor-Zel’dovich”
wave – similarity
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wave – similarity
d particle path n d
solution for constant
detonation speed and
Isentropic flow in
s e d e
o p e n
3
.
c l
2
Lx0
1 - at restexpans on an
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 117detonation
Spatial distribution of Pressure
Spreads linearly with increasing time.
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7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 118
Detonations Excite Flexural Waves in Piping
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7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 119
Measuring Elastic Vibration
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7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 120
ao
Flexural Wave Resonance in Tubes
Measured strain (hoop)
-4
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-4
• Coupled response due to hoopt (ms)
2
• Traveling load can excite
resonance when flexural wave
group velocity matches wave speed
Amplification factor
• Can be treated with analytical and
FEM models
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 121
U (m/s)e tman an ep er
Detonation-Induced Failure of Piping Systems
• Initiation of cracks at flaws
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•
– Location of transition from deflagration to detonation
– , ,
• Rupture
–
pressure
• Bending pipes or support structures
– Forces created by detonation wave changing direction
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 122
Detonation-Induced Fracture
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External Blast
Chao 2004
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 123
Fracture Behavior is a Strong Function of Init ial Flaw Length
. , . , .
Surface notch dimensions: Width: 0.25 mm, Notch depth: 0.56 mm
Chao 2004
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- -
Specimens (Pcj = 6.2 MPa)
= .
.
Surface Notch Length = 5.08 cm
Surface Notch Length = 7.62 cm
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 124Detonation wave direction
Special Issues in Piping Systems
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• Two types of loads :
– Short period hoop oscillation – Long period beam bending modes
• Significant in piping systems
– Traveling load creates series of impulses at bends, tees and closed ends
– Dynamic pressure must be accounted for in computing magnitude of impulse – Strains due to bending comparable or larger than hoop strains
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 125
Piping System Response
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bend
8/31/2009 126tee closed end
Pressure Waves on 90o Bend
extrados intrados
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Extrados compression waves
hi her ressure eaksIntrados expansion waves
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 127
Liang, Curran and Shepherd 2007
Transverse Flow Forces in a 90o Bend
d~ ~ ~~ ˆ ˆ
Momentum equation (general case):
ρu = ρuu n n
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dt
ρu = − − ρuu · n − n
Simplification for uniform, steady flow:
~ F = xA1
¡P 1 + ρ1u
2
1
¢ + yA2
¡P 2 + ρ2u
2
2
¢General unsteady case:
~ F = xF x(t) + yF y(t)
2 ~ PPu D namic ressure within Ta lor wave
Approximate transverse force
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 128
Behind detonation front 33
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17 strain gages
3 displacement gages
Spark ignition on W end
1 MHz recording for 0.5 s
8/31/2009 130
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350
300
= 1 Reflected CJ250
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200
150
s t r a i n
Shot 3
100 shot 4shot 5
Shot 6
Shot 22
= 1 Propagating CJ
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Shot 23
CJ
CJ - Ref
8/31/2009 135
Gage number
DDT
• Deflagration to detonation transition is a common
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• Compression of gas by flame increases pressure
“ ” .
• Represents upper bound in severity of pressure
loadin .
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 136
Deflagration to Detonation Transition
burned unburned
1. A smooth flame with laminar flow ahead
• Flame creates flow
– Pressure build-up
•
L li d
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2. First wrinkling of flame and instability of upstream flow
– Localized
3. Breakdown into turbulent flow and a corrugated flame
4. Production of pressure waves ahead of turbulent flame
5. Local explosion of vortical structure within the flame
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 137
6. Transition to detonation
DDT Near End Flange
Pressure History Strain History
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r a i n
)
t r a i n ( m i c r o s t
S
•15% H2 in H2-N2O at 1 atm init ial pressure
•Thermal ignition’
8/31/2009 138
• a o s ac es ns e ong u e
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Other DDT Testing
• Thin-walled vessels for plastic response and failure• Use bars or tabs as “obstacles” to cause flame acceleration
• Range of mixtures studied H2-N2O, H2-O2, CH4, C2H4, C3H8-O2
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• Measurement of strain and pressure
7 Sept 2009 Shepherd - Explosion Effects 141
DDT Near End Flange
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( m i c r o s t r a i n )
S t r a
i n
•15% H2 in H2-N2O at 1 atm initial pressure•Thermal ignition
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•Tab obstacles inside tube Liang, Karnesky & Shepherd 2006
H2-O2
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CJ- ref
CJ
CV
Pint en, Lian , & She herd 2007
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CH4-O2
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Pint en, Lian , & She herd 2007
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Conclusions of DDT Testing
• Peak pressures in DDT up to 10 X CJ-ref
– e , ogar o , raven an r eg , e c.
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• Load is in impulsive regime
• ea s ra n s compara e o . x s a c s ra n o
reflected detonation
• -(H2, CH4, C2H4, C3H8)
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Water-Hammer Induced by
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Elementary Theory
precursor
sound speed in water
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• sound speed in water
• Flexural wave in tube
coup e to watercompression wave
• wa er ammer
(Al tube)
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Joukowsky 1898, von Karman 1911, Skalak 1956, Tijsseling 1996
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Modeling Piping Response To Detonations
• SDOF model for hoop oscillations
•
Beam on an elastic foundation
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– Beam on an elastic foundation
– (Tang) with rotary inertia
– Shell models (Cirak)
– -
• Structural models for piping systems with bends,
tees su orts and nozzles.
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References on Gaseous Explosions
1. W. E. Baker, P. A. Cox, P. S.Westine, J. J. Kulesz, and R. A. Strehlow. ExplosionHazards and Evaluation. Elsevier, 1983. This is the classic monograph with anextensive discussion of all aspects of explosion and structural response. It isn en e o e a e a e ec n ca re erence an gu e or eng neers nvo ve nsafety assessments. The book emphasizes hand calculation methods and isapproximately evenly divided between the topics of characterizing explosion
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approximately evenly divided between the topics of characterizing explosion
loading, and models of structural response. There are chapters on fragment and, .
2. Anon. Guidelines for Evaluating the Characteristics of Vapor Cloud Explosions,Flash Fires, and BLEVEs. AIChE, 1994. Center for Chemical Process Safety. This
Safety (CCPS) of the American Institute of Chemical Engineershttp://www.aiche.org/ccps/. The emphasis is on pressure wave and thermalradiation from uncon¯ ned vapor clouds and boiling liquid expanding vaporexplosions (BLEVE). Oriented toward chemical process plant safety.
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References on Gaseous Explosions (cont)
3. J. M. Kuchta. Investigation of re and explosion accidents in chemical, mining, and fuel-related industries - a manual. Bulletin 680, Bureau of Mines, 1985. The Bureau of Minescarried out an extensive research program on gaseous explosions and this publication
° group through the mid 1980s.
R G
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4. Dag Bjerketvedt, Jan Roar Bakke, and Kees van Wingerden. Gas explosion handbook.
Journal Of Hazardous Materials, 52(1):1{150, January 1997. See the most recent onlinevers on a p: www.gexcon.com . e group a as een very ac ve yinvolved in explosion incident investigation and explosion protection studies. Their FLACSprogram is one of the most widely used tools for evaluating pressure wave generation byvapor cloud explosions in industrial facilities. This handbook (now online) provides arelatively easy to read introduction to all aspects of explosions with Chapter 8 providing ann ro uc on o s ruc ura response.
5. K. Gugan. Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions. Gulf Publishing Company, 1978. Incidentsof unconfined vapor cloud explosions from 1921 through 1979 are reviewed and detailed
.the factual material is very useful.
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References on Blast Waves
1. S. Glasstone and P. J. Dolan. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons. United States Department ofDefense and Department of Energy, 3rd edition, 1977. As title indicates, the focus is onnuclear weapons. Air blasts are a significant aspect of nuclear weapons effects and provided
.Glasstone provides a detailed description of blast wave phenomena and the effect of nuclearblasts on structures.
2 W E Baker Explosions in Air University of Texas Press Austin Texas 1973 Substantially
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2. W. E. Baker. Explosions in Air . University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, 1973. Substantially
overlaps material in Engineering Design Handbook. Explosions in Air. Volume 1. US Army, . - .is more oriented to conventional high explosives than Glasstone.
3. G. F. Kinney and K. J. Graham. Explosive Shocks in Air . 2nd Ed. Springer, 1985. Coverssimilar topics as both Baker and Glasstone but more oriented to classroom study. Somelimited discussion of structural effects.
4. Anon. Estimating air blast characteristics for single point explosions in air, with a guide toevaluation of atmospheric propagation and effects. Technical Report ANSI S2.20-1983(ASA20-1983), American National Standards Institute, 1983. Discusses standardizedapproach for scaling air blasts from an ideal (point) explosion. Discusses long range
ro a ation in the atmos here and effect of various weather features. Some discussion aboutstructural effects such as window breakage.
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References on Structural Response1. W. E. Baker, P. A. Cox, P. S. Westine, J. J. Kulesz, and R. A. Strehlow. Explosion Hazards and Evaluation.
Elsevier, 1983. This is probably still the best single reference on analytical methods of structural responseto explosion.
. . . m t an . . et er ngton. ast an a st c oa ng o tructures. utter-wort e nemann, .
An alternative to Baker et al., covers much of same material, much less detail so that it is easier to grasp
the concepts
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the concepts.
3. M. Paz and W. Lei h. Structural D namics. S rin er ¯ fth edition 2004. Modern all-around text on structural
response, oriented to civil engineers that are interested in earthquake response of structures. Integrates use
of computer simulation (SAP2000) intothe text.
4. J. Biggs. Introduction to structural dynamics. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1964. ISBN 07-005255-7. This is the classic
ex oo on s ng e egree o ree om mo e ng.
5. N. Jones. Structural Impact. Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-521-30180-7. Jones has a detailed
discussion of plastic deformation which applications to both impact and impulsive pressure loading.
6. Anon. Structures to Resist the Effects of Accident Ex losions. De artments of the Arm the Nav and the
Air Force, 1990. Design guide for concrete-reinforced structures. Very comprehensive but oriented to
military installations.
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References on Mechanics
1. M. F. Ashby and D. R. H. Jones. Engineering Materials I. Butterworth Heinemann, second
edition, 1996. Elementary discussion of the material properties relevant to mechanics withformulas and data that are useful for order of magnitude computations.
2. W. Nash. Stren th of Materials. Schaum's Outlines McGraw Hill fourth edition 1998. A
tutorial approach to the theory of the strength of materials that concentrations on beams.
3. A.C. Ugural and S.K. Fenster. Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity. Elsevier, 2nd SIedition, 1987. An all-around text of elasticity, plasticity and applications to static problems in
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edition, 1987. An all around text of elasticity, plasticity and applications to static problems in
the strength of materials.. . . mos en o an . . oo er. eory o as c y. c raw- u s ng ompany,third edition, 1970. This is the classic text on elasticity. Emphasizes analytical solutions.
5. N. Noda, R.B. Hetnarski, and Y. Tanigawa. Thermal Stresses. Taylor and Francis, 2002.ISBN 1-56032-971-8. If you need to solve a problem that involves thermal stresses, this is thebook to go to.
6. D. Broek. Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, fourthrevised edition, 1991. Fracture mechanics is a key part of the modern approach to designingpressure vessels and piping.
7. W. Johnson and P. B. Mellor. Engineering Plasticity. Ellis Horwood Limited, 1983.
. . . . . , .
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Handbooks
1. W. Young and R. Budynas. Roark's formulas for stress and strain. McGraw-Hill, 2002. ISBN0-07-072542-X. Seventh Edition. Roarks is an essential compendium of solutions for staticproblems in elasticity. Formulas for stress and strain for many shapes, boundary conditions,
.
2. R. D. Blevins. Formulas for natural frequency and mode shape. van Nostrand ReinholdCompany 1979 Blevins compilation is similar in philosophy to Roark’s but focuses on
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Company, 1979. Blevins compilation is similar in philosophy to Roark s but focuses on
dynamic solutions, speci¯ cally elastic vibrations of structures. He tabulates mode shapes andv ra ona requenc es or many s ruc ura e emen s an oun ary con ons.
3. A. S. Kobayashi, editor. Handbook on Experimental Mechanics. Society of ExperimentalMechanics, second revised edition, 1993. If you have to perform or interpret experiments,
' .
4. J.R. Davis. Carbon and Alloy Steels. ASM international, 1996. ISBN 0-87170-557-5. Data onthe most common construction material for piping and pressure vessels.
5. C. Moosbrugger. Atlas of stress-strain curves. Materials Park, OH : ASM international, 2002.Measured stress-strain curves for a wide range of materials.
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Books on Related Subjects are Useful
• Earthquake engineering – Strong ground motion excites building motion
• Terminal ballistics
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– Projectile impact creates stress waves and vibration• Crashworthiness
– Vehicle crash mitigation
• Weapons effects – Conventional (High explosive and FAE)
– Nuclear and nuclear simulation testing
TIP – Many recent studies on structural response to blasts have beensponsored to counter terrorism – the results are often restricted to
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government agencies or official use only.
Web Resources
• For more resources, preprints, and reports from,
http://www.galcit.caltech.edu/EDL
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