Emperor Meiji

Emperor Meiji ( Meiji-tenn, November 3,1852 July 30, 1912), or Meiji the Great (Meiji-taitei), was the 122nd Emperor of Japan accord-ing to the traditional order of succession, reigning fromFebruary 3, 1867 until his death on July 30, 1912. Hepresided over a time of rapid change in the Empire ofJapan, as the nation quickly changed from a feudal stateto a capitalist and imperial world power, characterized byJapan's industrial revolution.At the time of his birth in 1852, Japan was an iso-lated, pre-industrial, feudal country dominated by theTokugawa Shogunate and the daimyo, who ruled over thecountry's more than 250 decentralized domains. By thetime of his death in 1912, Japan had undergone a polit-ical, social, and industrial revolution at home (See MeijiRestoration) and emerged as one of the great powers onthe world stage. The New York Times summed up thistransformation at his funeral in 1912, with the words:the contrast between that which preceded the funeral carand that which followed it was striking indeed. Before itwent old Japan; after it came new Japan.*[1]In Japan, the reigning emperor is always referred to asThe Emperor"; since the modern era, a deceased em-peror is referred to by his particular reigning name. Thecorrect usage is thusthe Meiji Emperor. His personalname, which is not used in any formal or ocial context,wasMutsuhito ().

1 Background

The Tokugawa Shogunate had established itself in theearly 17th century.*[2] Under its rule, the shogun gov-erned Japan. About 180 lords, known as daimyo, ruledautonomous realms under the shogun, who occasionallycalled upon the daimyo for gifts, but did not tax them.The shogun controlled the daimyo in other ways; onlythe shogun could approve their marriages, and the shoguncould divest a daimyo of his lands.*[3]In 1615, the rst Tokugawa shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu,who had ocially retired from his position, and his sonTokugawa Hidetada, the titular shogun, issued a code ofbehavior for the nobility. Under it, the emperor was re-quired to devote his time to scholarship and the arts.*[4]The emperors under the shogunate appear to have closelyadhered to this code, studying Confucian classics and de-voting time to poetry and calligraphy.*[5] They were onlytaught the rudiments of Japanese and Chinese history and

geography.*[5] The shogun did not seek the consent oradvice of the emperor for his actions.*[6]Emperors almost never left their palace compound, orGosho in Kyoto, except after an emperor retired or to takeshelter in a temple if the palace caught on re.*[7] Fewemperors lived long enough to retire; of the Meiji Em-peror's ve predecessors, only his grandfather lived intohis forties, dying aged forty-six.*[6] The imperial familysuered very high rates of infant mortality; all ve of theemperor's brothers and sisters died as infants, and onlyve of his own fteen children reached adulthood.*[6]Soon after taking control in the early seventeenth century,shogunate ocials (known generically as bakufu) endedmuch Western trade with Japan, and barred missionariesfrom the islands. In addition to the substantial Chinesetrade, only the Dutch continued trade with Japan, main-taining a post on the island of Dejima by Nagasaki.*[8]However, by the early 19th century, European and Amer-ican vessels appeared in the waters around Japan with in-creasing frequency.*[9]

2 BoyhoodMutsuhito was born on November 3, 1852 in a smallhouse on his maternal grandfather's property at the northend of the Gosho. At the time, a birth was believed tobe polluting, so imperial princes were not born in thePalace, but usually in a structure, often temporary, nearthe pregnant woman's father's house. The boy's mother,Nakayama Yoshiko was a concubine (gon no tenji) toEmperor Kmei and the daughter of the acting majorcounselor, Nakayama Tadayasu.*[10] The young princewas given the name Sachinomiya, or Prince Sachi.*[11]

Teenager Meiji Emperor with foreign representatives at the endof the Boshin War, 18681870

The young prince was born at a time of change for Japan.This change was symbolized dramatically when Com-modore Matthew Perry and his squadron of what theJapanese dubbedthe Black Ships", sailed into the harbor

1

2 3 UNREST AND ACCESSION

at Edo (known since 1868 as Tokyo) in July 1853. Perrysought to open Japan to trade, and warned the Japaneseof military consequences if they did not agree.*[12] Dur-ing the crisis brought on by Perry's arrival, the bakufutook the highly unusual step of consulting with the Im-perial Court, and Emperor Kmei's ocials advised thatthey felt the Americans should be allowed to trade andasked that they be informed in advance of any steps tobe taken upon Perry's return. This request was initiallyhonored by the bakufu, and for the rst time in at least250 years, they consulted with the Imperial Court be-fore making a decision.*[13] Feeling that it could not wina war, the Japanese government allowed trade and sub-mitted to what it dubbed the "Unequal Treaties", givingup tari authority and the right to try foreigners in itsown courts.*[12] The bakufu'swillingness to consult withthe Court was short-lived: in 1858, word of a treaty ar-rived with a letter stating that due to shortness of time,it had not been possible to consult. Emperor Kmeiwas so incensed that he threatened to abdicatethougheven this action would have required the consent of theshogun.*[14]Much of the Emperor's boyhood is known only throughlater accounts, which his biographer Donald Keene pointsout are often contradictory. One contemporary describedthe young prince as healthy and strong, somewhat of abully and exceptionally talented at sumo. Another statesthat the prince was delicate and often ill. Some biog-raphers state that he fainted when he rst heard gunre,while others deny this account.*[15] OnAugust 16, 1860,Sachinomiya was proclaimed prince of the blood and heirto the throne, and was formally adopted by his father'sconsort. Later that year on November 11, he was pro-claimed as the crown prince and given an adult name,Mutsuhito.*[16] The prince began his education at theage of seven.*[17] He proved an indierent student, andlater in life wrote poems regretting that he had not appliedhimself more in writing practice.*[18]

3 Unrest and accessionMain articles: Meiji period, Meiji Restoration,Government of Meiji Japan and Meiji Constitu-tionBy the early 1860s, the shogunate was under severalthreats. Representatives of foreign powers sought toincrease their inuence in Japan. Many daimyo wereincreasingly dissatised with bakufu handling foreignaairs. Large numbers of young samurai, known asshishi or men of high purposebegan to meet andspeak against the shogunate. The shishi revered theEmperor Kmei and favored direct violent action to curesocietal ills. While they initially desired the death orexpulsion of all foreigners, the shishi would later beginto advocate the modernization of the country.*[19] Thebakufu enacted several measures to appease the various

The young Meiji emperor, 1872, albumen silver print by UchidaKuichi

The young Meiji emperor in military dress, by Uchida Kuichi in1873

groups, and hoped to drive a wedge between the shishiand daimyo.*[20]Kyoto was a major center for the shishi, who had inu-ence over the Emperor Kmei. In 1863, they persuaded

3him to issue an "Order to expel barbarians". The Orderplaced the shogunate in a dicult position, since it knewit lacked the power to carry it out. Several attacks weremade on foreigners or their ships, and foreign forces retal-iated. Bakufu forces were able to drive most of the shishiout of Kyoto, and an attempt by them to return in 1864was driven back. Neverless, unrest continued throughoutJapan.*[20]

The shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, in 1867

The prince's awareness of the political turmoil is uncer-tain.*[21] During this time, he studied waka poetry, rstwith his father, then with the court poets.*[22] As theprince continued his classical education in 1866, a newshogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu took oce, a reformerwho desired to transform Japan into aWestern-style state.Yoshinobu, who would prove to be the nal shogun, metwith resistance from among the bakufu, even as unrestand military actions continued. In mid-1866, a bakufuarmy set forth to punish rebels in southern Japan. Thearmy was defeated.*[23]The Emperor Kmei had always enjoyed excellent health,and was only 36 years old in January 1867. In that month,however, he fell seriously ill. Though he appeared tomake some recovery, he suddenly worsened and died onJanuary 30. Many historians believe the Emperor Kmeiwas poisoned, a view not unknown at the time: Britishdiplomat Sir Ernest Satow wrote, it is impossible todeny that [the Emperor Kmei's] disappearance from thepolitical scene, leaving as his successor a boy of fteen orsixteen [actually fourteen], was most opportune.*[24]The crown prince formally ascended to the throne onFebruary 3, 1867, in a brief ceremony in Kyoto.*[25] Thenew Emperor continued his classical education, which

did not include matters of politics. In the meantime, theshogun, Yoshinobu, struggled to maintain power. He re-peatedly asked for the Emperor's conrmation of his ac-tions, which he eventually received, but there is no indica-tion that the young Emperor was himself involved in thedecisions. The shishi and other rebels continued to shapetheir vision of the new Japan, and while they revered theEmperor, they had no thought of having him play an ac-tive part in the political process.*[26]The political struggle reached its climax in late 1867. InNovember, an agreement was reached by which Yoshi-nobu would maintain his title and some of his power, butthe lawmaking power would be vested in a bicameral leg-islature based on the British model. The followingmonth,the agreement fell apart as the rebels marched on Kyoto,taking control of the Imperial Palace.*[27] On January 4,1868, the Emperor ceremoniously read out a documentbefore the court proclaiming therestorationof Impe-rial rule,*[28] and the following month, documents weresent to foreign powers:*[27]

The Emperor of Japan announces to thesovereigns of all foreign countries and to theirsubjects that permission has been granted tothe Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu to returnthe governing power in accordance with hisown request. We shall henceforward exercisesupreme authority in all the internal and exter-nal aairs of the country. Consequently the ti-tle of Emperor must be substituted for that ofTycoon, in which the treaties have been made.Ocers are being appointed by us to the con-duct of foreign aairs. It is desirable that therepresentatives of the treaty powers recognizethis announcement.Mutsuhito*[29]

Yoshinobu resisted only briey, but it was not until late1869 that the nal bakufu holdouts were nally de-feated.*[27] In the ninth month of the following year, theera was changed to Meiji, orenlightened rule, whichwas later used for the emperor's posthumous name. Thismarked the beginning of the custom of an era coincidingwith an emperor's reign, and posthumously naming theemperor after the era during which he ruled.Soon after his accession, the Emperor's ocials pre-sented Ichij Haruko to him as a possible bride. Thefuture Empress was the daughter of an Imperial ocial,and was three years older than the groom, who wouldhave to wait to wed until after his gembuku (manhoodceremony). The two married on January 11, 1869.*[30]Known posthumously as Empress Shken, she was therst Imperial Consort to receive the title of kg (liter-ally, the Emperor's wife, translated as Empress Consort),in several hundred years. Although she was the rstJapanese Empress Consort to play a public role, she boreno children. However, theMeiji emperor had fteen chil-dren by ve ocial ladies-in-waiting. Only ve of his

4 4 MEIJI ERA

children, a prince born to Lady Naruko (18551943), thedaughter of Yanagiwara Mitsunaru, and four princessesborn to Lady Sachiko (18671947), the eldest daughterof Count SonoMotosachi, lived to adulthood. They were:

Wedding of Crown Prince Yoshihito and Princess Kuj Sadako

Crown Prince Yoshihito (Haru-no-miya YoshihitoShinn), 3rd son, (August 31, 1879 December 25,1926) (see Emperor Taish).

Princess Masako (Tsune-no-miya MasakoNaishinn), 6th daughter, (September 30, 1888 March 8, 1940) (see Princess Masako Takeda).

Princess Fusako (Kane-no-miya Fusako Naishinn),7th daughter, (January 28, 1890 August 11, 1974)(see Fusako Kitashirakawa).

Princess Nobuko (Fumi-no-miya NobukoNaishinn), 8th daughter, (August 7, 1891 November 3, 1933) (see Princess Nobuko Asaka).

Princess Toshiko (Yasu-no-miya ToshikoNaishinn), 9th daughter, (May 11, 1896 March 5, 1978) (see Toshiko Higashikuni).

4 Meiji eraMain article: Meiji Restoration

4.1 Consolidation of powerDespite the ouster of the bakufu, no eective central gov-ernment had been put in place by the rebels. On March23, foreign envoys were rst permitted to visit Kyotoand pay formal calls on the Emperor.*[31] On April 7,1868, the Emperor was presented with the Charter Oath,a ve-point statement of the nature of the new govern-ment, designed to win over those who had not yet com-mitted themselves to the new regime. This document,which the Emperor then formally promulgated, abolished

Meiji, Emperor of Japan and the Imperial Family (1900). Fromleft to right: Princess Kane, the Crown Princess, Princess Fumi,the Emperor, Princess Yasu, the Empress, the Crown Prince andPrincess Tsune.

Sixteen-year-old emperor, traveling from Kyoto to Tokyo at theend of 1868

feudalism and proclaimed a modern democratic govern-ment for Japan. The Charter Oath would later be citedby Emperor Hirohito in the Humanity Declaration as sup-port for the imposed changes in Japanese government fol-lowing World War II.*[32] In mid-May, he left the Impe-rial precincts in Kyoto for the rst time since early child-hood to take command of the forces pursuing the rem-nants of the bakufu armies. Traveling in slow stages, hetook three days to travel from Kyoto to Osaka, throughroads lined with crowds.*[33] There was no conict inOsaka; the new leaders wanted the Emperor to be morevisible to his people and to foreign envoys. At the endof May, after two weeks in Osaka (in a much less for-mal atmosphere than in Kyoto), the Emperor returned tohis home.*[34] Shortly after his return, it was announcedthat the Emperor would begin to preside over all statebusiness, reserving further literary study for his leisuretime.*[35] Only from 1871 did the Emperor's studies in-clude materials on contemporary aairs.*[36]On September 19, 1868, the Emperor announced that thename of the city of Edo was being changed to Tokyo, oreastern capital. He was formally crowned in Kyoto

4.2 Political reform 5

The Meiji Emperor in his younger years (illustration, not a pho-tograph)

on October 15 (a ceremony which had been postponedfrom the previous year due to the unrest). Shortly beforethe coronation, he announced that the new era, or neng,would be calledMeiji orenlightened rule. Heretoforethe neng had often been changed multiple times in anemperor's reign; from now on, it was announced, therewould only be one neng per reign.*[37]Soon after his coronation, the Emperor journeyed toTokyo by road, visiting it for the rst time. He arrived inlate November, and began an extended stay by distribut-ing sake among the population. The population of Tokyowas eager for an Imperial visit; it had been the site ofthe Shogun's court and the population feared that withthe abolition of the shogunate, the city might fall into de-cline.*[38] It would not be until 1889 that a nal deci-sion was made to move the capital to Tokyo.*[39] Whilein Tokyo, the Emperor boarded a Japanese naval vesselfor the rst time, and the following day gave instructionsfor studies to see how Japan's navy could be strength-ened.*[40] Soon after his return to Kyoto, a rescript wasissued in the Emperor's name (but most likely written bycourt ocials). It indicated his intent to be involved ingovernment aairs, and indeed he attended cabinet meet-ings and innumerable other government functions, thoughrarely speaking, almost until the day of his death.*[41]

4.2 Political reformThe successful revolutionaries organized themselves intoa Council of State, and subsequently into a system wherethree main ministers led the government. This struc-ture would last until the establishment of a prime min-ister, who would lead a cabinet in the western fashion, in1885.*[42] Initially, not even the retention of the emperorwas certain; revolutionary leader Got Shjir later statedthat some ocialswere afraid the extremists might gofurther and abolish the Mikado.*[43]Japan's new leaders sought to reform the patchwork sys-tem of domains governed by the daimyo. In 1869, sev-eral of the daimyo who had supported the revolution gavetheir lands to the Emperor and were reappointed as gov-ernors, with considerable salaries. By the following year,all other daimyo had followed suit.

The Emperor in a formal session of the Diet. Ukiyo-e woodblockprint by Ysh Chikanobu, 1890

The Emperor in a formal session of the House of Peers. Wood-block print by Chikanobu, 1890

In 1871, the Emperor announced that domains wereentirely abolished, as Japan was organized into 72prefectures. The daimyo were compensated with annualsalaries equal to ten percent of their former revenues(from which they did not now have to deduct the cost ofgoverning), but were required to move to the new capital,Tokyo. Most retired from politics.*[44]The new administration gradually abolished most priv-ileges of the samurai, including their right to a stipendfrom the government. However, unlike the daimyo, manysamurai suered nancially from this change. Mostother class-based distinctions were abolished. Legalizeddiscrimination against the burakumin ended. However,these classes continue to suer discrimination in Japan

6 6 TIMELINE OF EVENTS DURING THE LIFE AND REIGN OF THE MEIJI EMPEROR

to the present time.*[45]Although a parliament was formed, it had no real power,and neither did the emperor. Power had passed fromthe Tokugawa into the hands of those Daimyo and othersamurai who had led the Restoration. Japan was thus con-trolled by the Genro, an oligarchy, which comprised themost powerful men of the military, political, and eco-nomic spheres. The emperor, if nothing else, showedgreater political longevity than his recent predecessors, ashe was the rst Japanese monarch to remain on the thronepast the age of 50 since the abdication of Emperor gi-machi in 1586.The Japanese take pride in the Meiji Restoration, as itand the accompanying industrialization allowed Japan tobecome the preeminent power in the Pacic and a ma-jor player in the world within a generation. Yet, theMeiji emperor's role in the Restoration remains debat-able. He certainly did not control Japan, but how muchinuence he wielded is unknown. It is unlikely it will everbe clear whether he supported the Sino-Japanese War(18941895) or the Russo-Japanese War (19041905).One of the few windows we have into the Emperor's ownfeelings is his poetry, which seems to indicate a paciststreak, or at least a manwhowished war could be avoided.He composed the following pacist poem:

*[46]

Yomo no umimina harakara to omofu yo ninado namikaze no tachi sawaguramu*[46]

The seas of the four directionsall are born of one womb:why, then, do the wind and waves rise in dis-cord?*[46]

Near the end of his life several anarchists, includingKotoku Shusui, were executed (1911) on charges of hav-ing conspired to murder the sovereign. This conspiracywas known as the High Treason Incident (1910).

5 DeathThe Meiji Emperor, suering from diabetes, nephritis,and gastroenteritis, died of uremia. Although the ocialannouncement said he died at 00:42 on July 30, 1912, theactual death was at 22:40 on July 29.*[47]*[48] After theemperor's death in 1912, the Japanese Diet passed a reso-lution to commemorate his role in the Meiji Restoration.An iris garden in an area of Tokyo where the Meiji Em-peror and Empress had been known to visit was chosenas the building's location for the Shinto shrineMeiji jingu.

6 Timeline of events during the lifeand reign of the Meiji Emperor

The Meiji emperor receiving the Order of the Garter from PrinceArthur of Connaught in 1906, as a consequence of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.*[49]

The Meiji era ushered in many far-reaching changes tothe ancient feudal society of Japan. A timeline of majorevents might include:

November 3, 1852: the Meiji emperor (then knownas Sachinomiya) is born to the imperial concubineNakayama Yoshiko and Emperor Komei

1853: A eet of ships headed by CommodoreMatthew Perry arrives in Japan on July 8; consid-ered by German Japanologist Johannes Justus Reinand described by Francis L. Hawks and CommodoreMatthew Perry in their 1856 work, Narrative of theExpedition of an American Squadron to the ChinaSeas and Japan Performed in the Years 1852, 1853and 1854 under the Command of Commodore M.C.Perry, United States Navy., as the OpeningofJapan. Death of the Shogun.

185455: Treaties are signed with the United Statesby the Bakufu

late 1850s1860s: The "Sonn ji" movement is infull force.

1858: The Bakufu sign treaties with theNetherlands, Imperial Russia, and Great Britain.

March 1860: The Tairo, Ii Naosuke, is assassinatedin the Sakuradamon incident.

November 11: Sachinomiya is formally proclaimedCrown Prince and given the personal name Mut-suhito.

1862: Namamugi Incident 186465: Bombardment of Shimonoseki by British,American, French, and Dutch ships; ghting ensuesbetween the shogunate and Chsh.

7 1866: Death of the Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi onAugust 29; appointment of Tokugawa Yoshinobu asShogun.

January 31, 1867: Death of Emperor Komei fromhemorrhagic smallpox, unocial accession of Mut-suhito to the throne.

January 4, 1868: Formal restoration of imperialrule; end of 265 years of rule by the TokugawaShogunate

September 12: Formal coronation of the emperor. October 23: The nengo is changed to Meiji. November 6: The capital is moved from Kyoto toEdo, renamed Tokyo.

November 5, 1872: The Meiji Emperor receivesThe Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia

late 1860s1881: Period of rebellion and assassina-tion in Japan.

January 11, 1869: Marriage of the emperor to IchijoHaruko, thenceforth the Empress Shoken.

September 4: The emperor receives The Duke ofEdinburgh.

1871: The abolition of the han domains is pro-claimed.

1873: Edo castle is destroyed in a conagration; theemperor moves to the Akasaka Palace. His rst chil-dren are born, but die at birth.

1877: The Satsuma Rebellion 1878: Assassination of Okubo Toshimichi. August 31, 1879: Prince Yoshihito, the futureTaisho Tenno and the emperor's only surviving son,is born.

1881: Receives the rst state visit of a foreignmonarch, King Kalakaua of Hawaii.

1889: Meiji Constitution promulgated; Ito Hi-robumi becomes rst Prime Minister of Japan.

1894: Sino-Japanese War; Japanese victory estab-lishes Japan as a regional power.

1901: Became Grandfather when Taisho Tenno'sson, the future Emperor Shwa was born.

19041905: Russo-Japanese War; Japanese victoryearns Japan the status of a great power.

1910: The Annexation of Korea by the Empire ofJapan.

1912: The emperor dies.*[1]

7 On lmEmperor Meiji is portrayed by Toshir Mifune in the1980 Japanese war drama lm The Battle of Port Arthur(sometimes referred as 203 Kochi).*[50] Directed byToshio Masuda the lm depicted the Siege of Port Arthurduring the Russo-Japanese War and starred TatsuyaNakadai (as General Nogi Maresuke), Tetsur Tamba (asGeneral Kodama Gentar) and Toshir Mifune (as Em-peror Meiji).Emperor Meiji is also portrayed by Nakamura Shichi-nosuke II in The Last Samurai.

8 Concubines and children Concubines

Lady Mitsuko (1853 - 1873). Not much isknown about Lady Mitsuko, however she gavebirth to the Emperor's rst son. She died inchildbirth.

Lady Natsuko (1856 November 14, 1873).She gave birth to the Emperor's rst daughterand also died in childbirth.

Yanagihara Naruko (June 26, 1859 October16, 1943). Natural mother of the EmperorTaish.

Chigusa Kotoko (1855 - 1944) Sono Sachiko (December 23, 1867 July 7,1947)

Children

9 Titles and styles November 3, 1852 November 11, 1860: His Im-

perial Highness The Prince Sachi November 11, 1860 February 3, 1867: His Im-

perial Highness The Crown Prince February 3, 1867 July 30, 1912: His Majesty TheEmperor

Posthumous title: His Majesty Emperor Meiji

10 Honours

10.1 National honours Grand Cordon and Collar of the Order of theChrysanthemum

Recipient of the Order of the Rising Sun withPaulownia Flowers

8 12 NOTES

10.2 Foreign honours United Kingdom : Knight of the Garter

Spain : Knight of the Golden Fleece

Sweden : Knight of the Royal Order of theSeraphim

Greece : Grand Cross of the Order of the Re-deemer

Kingdom of Italy : Knight of the Order of theMost Holy Annunciation

Kingdom of Hawaii : Recipient of the RoyalOrder of Kamehameha I

Prussia : Recipient of the Order of the BlackEagle

Kingdom of Italy : Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of Saints Maurice and Lazarus

Kingdom of Italy : Knight Grand Cross of theOrder of the Crown of Italy

Thailand : Order of the Royal House of Chakri

Meiji House, part of the house system of Austrey School,Pakistan is named after Emperor Meiji.*[51]*[52]

11 Issue

12 Notes[1] http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=

9D05E3DB1F3CE633A25750C1A9669D946396D6CFThe Funeral Ceremonies of Meiji Tennoreprintedfrom the Japan Advertiser Article 8No Title], NewYork Times. October 13, 1912.

[2] Jansen 1995, p. vii.

[3] Gordon 2009, pp. 1415.

[4] Keene 2002, p. 3.

[5] Gordon 2009, pp. 34.

[6] Gordon 2009, p. 2.

[7] Gordon 2009, pp. 45.

[8] Gordon 2009, p. 19.

[9] Gordon 2009, p. 47.

[10] Keene 2002, p. 10.

[11] Keene 2002, p. 14.

[12] Gordon 2009, pp. 5051.

[13] Keene 2002, p. 18.

[14] Keene 2002, pp. 3941.

[15] Keene 2002, p. xii.

[16] Keene 2002, pp. 5152.

[17] Keene 2002, p. 46.

[18] Keene 2002, p. 48.

[19] Gordon 2009, pp. 5355.

[20] Gordon 2009, pp. 5556.

[21] Keene 2002, p. 73.

[22] Keene 2002, p. 78.

[23] Gordon 2009, pp. 5758.

[24] Keene 2002, pp. 9496.

[25] Keene 2002, p. 98.

[26] Keene 2002, pp. 102104.

[27] Gordon 2009, p. 59.

[28] Keene 2002, p. 121.

[29] Keene 2002, p. 117.

[30] Keene 2002, pp. 105107.

[31] Keene 2002, p. 133.

[32] Jansen 1995, p. 195.

[33] Keene 2002, p. 143.

[34] Keene 2002, pp. 145146.

[35] Keene 2002, p. 147.

[36] Keene 2002, p. 171.

[37] Keene 2002, pp. 157159.

[38] Keene 2002, pp. 160163.

[39] Gordon 2009, p. 68.

[40] Keene 2002, pp. 163165.

[41] Keene 2002, p. 168.

[42] Gordon 2009, p. 64.

[43] Jansen 1994, p. 342.

[44] Gordon 2009, p. 63.

[45] Gordon 2009, p. 65.

[46] http://this-is-japan.com/en/blognews/item/215.htmlHistorical Events Today: 1867 - Prince Mutsuhito, 14,becomes Emperor Meiji of Japan (1867-1912).

[47] Takashi, Fujitani (1998). Splendid monarchy: powerand pageantry in modern Japan. University of CaliforniaPress. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-520-21371-5.

9[48] " No.589" (PDF) (in Japanese). San-nohe town hall. Retrieved May 18, 2011.

[49]TheMikado's Garter,New York Times. July 28, 1906.[50] The Battle of Port Arthur (203Koshi) in the InternetMovie

Database

[51] http://www.as.edu.pk/information

[52] http://www.ermine.org.uk/schools

13 References Gordon, Andrew (2003), A Modern History of

Japan: from Tokugawa Times to the Present,Oxford University Press ISBN 0195110609/ISBN9780195110609; ISBN 0195110617/ISBN9780195110616; OCLC 49704795

Jansen, Marius (1961), Sakamoto Ryoma and theMeiji Restoration, Princeton University Press OCLC413111

____________ (1995), The Emergence of MeijiJapan, Cambridge University Press ISBN0521482380/ISBN 9780521482387; ISBN0521484057/ISBN 9780521484053; OCLC31515308

Keene, Donald (2002), Emperor of Japan: Meiji andHis World, 18521912, Columbia University PressISBN 023112340X/ISBN 9780231123402; OCLC46731178

Wilson, George M. (1992), Patriots and Re-deemers: Motives in the Meiji Restoration, Universityof Chicago Press ISBN 0226900916/ISBN9780226900919; ISBN 0226900924/ISBN9780226900926; OCLC 23869701

14 External links Meiji Shrine Meiji Emperor "Mutsu Hito". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.).1911.

"Mutsuhito, Emperor of Japan". The New Student'sReference Work. 1914.

10 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses15.1 Text

Emperor Meiji Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Meiji?oldid=679866656 Contributors: Mav, Ed Poor, Amillar, Alex.tan,Kowloonese, Enchanter, Shii, Olivier, Patrick, Kchishol1970, JohnOwens, Zocky, Gabbe, Tannin, Wapcaplet, TakuyaMurata,Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Cyan, Vzbs34, Jiang, Grin, John K, Samuel~enwiki, Johan Magnus, Hashar, Emperorbma, WhisperToMe, Pere-grine981, Je~enwiki, Kaal, Jnc, Lord Emsworth, Mp623, Robbot, Chris 73, Scarlet, Pibwl, Sekicho, JB82, Timrollpickering, David-cannon, DocWatson42, Nat Krause, Orpheus, Monedula, Kadzuwo~enwiki, Per Honor et Gloria, Eequor, Auximines, Manuel Anastcio,Quadell, Antandrus, MistToys, PFHLai, Fg2, Lacrimosus, Qui1che, D6, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, KittySaturn, FWBOarticle,Dolda2000, SamEV, Bender235, Closeapple, Zscout370, Kross, Bobo192, Arcadian, Physicistjedi, Leifern, Alansohn, Anthony Apple-yard, Nik42, Messhermit, Snowolf, SidP, Kaiser matias, LordAmeth, Hijiri88, Boothy443, Fred26, Billhpike, Woohookitty, MrDarcy,Graham87, BD2412, Island, Fizzalicious, Rjwilmsi, , Gryndor, FlaBot, Nihiltres, Ewlyahoocom, Pinkville, Str1977,Le Anh-Huy, Jefu, Mstroeck, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Koeyahoo, GLaDOS, Thane, Howcheng, Gavinnauss, Arrigo,Ospalh, Gmosaki, Mkill, BOT-Superzerocool, Alarob, Chery, E Wing, Nae'blis, Philip Stevens, Patiwat, Akrabbim, KnightRider~enwiki,SmackBot, Wehwalt, Delldot, PeterSymonds, JSpudeman, Schmiteye, Chris the speller, Endroit, vitrigaila, WikiFlier, DHN-bot~enwiki,GoodDay, OrphanBot, Underbar dk, Wizardman, Le baron, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Esrever, Gobonobo, Ex nihil, Ryulong, MTS-bot~enwiki, Joseph Solis in Australia, Storms991, Makeemlighter, Duke of Yarmouth, WeggeBot, Ph0kin, Cydebot, Bridgecross, DavidA. Victor, Myscrnnm, Bobo12345, Thijs!bot, N5iln, SGGH, I do not exist, Questionfromjapan, RobotG, WinBot, Aldebaran69, Faros-daughter, North Shoreman, JAnDbot, Avaya1, Connormah, Freedomlinux, Faizhaider, Waacstats, TaraO, Calgary, Styrofoam1994, Scorpi-anPK, 1549bcp, NatureA16, MartinBot, DrKiernan, Eliz81, WJBscribe, Lucifero4, Jevansen, Inwind, CardinalDan, VolkovBot, Milnivlek,Aciram, Pparazorback, Omegastar, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Sir Joestar, Dream100~enwiki, Jack Naven Rulez, SpikeZOM, Enkyo2,SieBot, Mycomp, Louis88~enwiki, ToePeu.bot, Mr Rhys, Noveltyghost, Yintan, RB1956, MinorContributor, OdaMari, Lightmouse, Aum-namahashiva, Iamwisesun, Martarius, ClueBot, Kyoww, The Thing That Should Not Be, Hipgnostic, Der Golem, CounterVandalismBot,Poohpooh817, Ktr101, Excirial, EhJJ, Hokulani78, Thehelpfulone, Kintaro, Cliche-29, John Prattley, SilvonenBot, Alexius08, KAVE-BEAR, Surtsicna, Addbot, Gators93, TutterMouse, Douglas the Comeback Kid, Demonaire Rai, Glane23, ChenzwBot, AgadaUrbanit,Numbo3-bot, Newfraferz87, WuBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Legobot II, Juqipedia, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Kingpin13,Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Jb8, JhanCRUSH, Donald1972, Senken, Tktru,,Adam9389, Tranletuhan, Sannaj, AMorozov, Sami77sami77, Moonraker, Tahir mq, Jandalhandler, 70Jack90, TobeBot, Specs112, ReachOut to the Truth, Yusha0450, Keroro1213, Midnight bird, EmausBot, N nicole., PBS-AWB, F, Zytesy, Carmichael, James-Jason-Lee,ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Maculosae tegmine lyncis, Polozooza, Keivan.f, Vagobot, BendelacBOT, Tim152, Englandire-landscotlandwales, Timjones1955, Yolandagracio,, Enredados, Sawol, Piglet Warrior, World historia,, Frosty, Randykitty,Kitty1976, Library Guy, Ryan Ch'ng, Monkbot, Vieque, Spring3390, Marcelo Armando,, KasparBot and Anonymous: 244

15.2 Images File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original

artist: ? File:Emperor_Taish.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Emperor_Taish%C5%8D.jpg License: Pub-

lic domain Contributors: Original artist: (Imperial Household Agency) File:Flag_of_Hawaii.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Flag_of_Hawaii.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: http://openclipart.org/clipart/signs_and_symbols/flags/america/united_states/usa_hawaii.svg Original artist: ? File:Flag_of_Italy_(1861-1946)_crowned.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Italy_

%281861-1946%29_crowned.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:http://www.prassi.cnr.it/prassi/content.html?id=1669Original artist: F l a n k e r

File:Flag_of_Prussia_1892-1918.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Flag_of_Prussia_1892-1918.svgLicense: Copyrighted free use Contributors: Own Work, Custom Creation according to the ag description Original artist: Drawing createdby David Liuzzo

File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_Thailand_1855.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Flag_of_Thailand_1855.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Xiengyod

File:Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Flag_of_the_Japanese_Emperor.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp/~{}tamura/kousitugiseirei.htm Original artist:User:Zscout370 and User:Philip Nilsson

File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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File:HIH_Asaka_Nobuko.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/HIH_Asaka_Nobuko.jpg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:HIH_Kitashirakawa_Fusako.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/HIH_Kitashirakawa_Fusako.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

15.3 Content license 11

File:HIH_Princess_Higashikuni_Toshiko.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/HIH_Princess_Higashikuni_Toshiko.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:HIH_Princess_Takeda_Masako_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/HIH_Princess_Takeda_Masako_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Inspired by File:Japan coa kiku.png Original artist: User:Philip Nilsson

File:MeijiEmperorReceivingOrderOfTheGarter1906.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/MeijiEmperorReceivingOrderOfTheGarter1906.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: A study of History, Arnold ToynbeeOriginal artist: Unknown

File:MeijiJoukyou.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/MeijiJoukyou.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Meiji_Emperor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Meiji_Emperor.jpg License: Public domainContributors: The Cleveland Museum of Art(Kinoshita). Published in the Japanese book, Meiji Tenno gyoden (Tokyo: Kaneo Bun'endo,1912) Original artist: Uchida Kuichi

File:Meiji_shomei.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Meiji_shomei.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: ref.A03020029699Original artist: Shinme (talk)

File:Meiji_tenno1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Meiji_tenno1.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: (1999-November) (Tenno Yondai No Shozo), Tokyo, Japan: (Mainichi Shinbun Sha)ISBN: 4620605549. Original artist: Artist: Eduardo Chiossone (183398); Photographer: Maruki Riy (also misspelt as Maruki Toshi-aki)*[#cite_note-fujitani-3 [3]]

File:Meiji_tenno3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Meiji_tenno3.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Tenno Yondai No Shozo " ", published by Mainichi Shinbun Sha , 1999. Original artist: Pho-tographed by Uchida Kuichi.

File:Merchant_flag_of_Japan_(1870).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Merchant_flag_of_Japan_%281870%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: kahusi - (Talk)'s le Original artist: kahusi - (Talk)

File:State_flag_of_Greece_(18631924;193573).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/State_Flag_of_Greece_%281863-1924_and_1935-1970%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:peeperman

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File:Teenager_Meiji_Emperor_with_foreign_representatives_1868_1870.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Teenager_Meiji_Emperor_with_foreign_representatives_1868_1870.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Samourai et KamikazeConstantin Parvulesco p.55 Original artist: Anonymous Japanese

File:The_Japanese_imperial_family,_1900.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/The_Japanese_imperial_family%2C_1900.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/master/pnp/jpd/02500/02532u.tif Originalartist: Kasai, Torajiro

File:Tokugawa_yoshinobu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Tokugawa_yoshinobu.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.geocities.jp/keratutuki/archive/syougun_no_photography/s_photgraphy_jpg/33-08ikan_.jpgOriginal artist: Unknown

File:Torajir_Kasai,_Wedding_of_Crown_Prince_Yoshihito_and_Princess_Kuj_Sadako,_1900.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Torajir%C5%8D_Kasai%2C_Wedding_of_Crown_Prince_Yoshihito_and_Princess_Kuj%C5%8D_Sadako%2C_1900.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library ofCongress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID jpd.02535.This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.Original artist: Torajir Kasai

File:Ysh_Chikanobu_House_of_Peers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Y%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB_Chikanobu_House_of_Peers.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.harashobo.com/english/ Original artist: ToyoharaChikanobu

File:Ysh_Chikanobu_Scene_of_the_Diet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Y%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB_Chikanobu_Scene_of_the_Diet.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.harashobo.com/english/ Original artist:Toyohara Chikanobu

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BackgroundBoyhoodUnrest and accessionMeiji eraConsolidation of powerPolitical reform

DeathTimeline of events during the life and reign of the Meiji EmperorOn filmConcubines and childrenTitles and stylesHonoursNational honoursForeign honours

IssueNotesReferencesExternal linksText and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license