Ekonomi Pembiayaan Pendidikan
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Transcript of Ekonomi Pembiayaan Pendidikan
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CHAPT E R T WE L VE
Personnel Policies and Finance
Issues concerning financial support as it relates to personnel probably have attracted more
attention and taken more of the time of local citizens, board members, and school officials
during recent years than most other problems relating to the schools. This attention was
probably essential under the circumstances, and the issues should not be neglected in the
future, primarily because the kind and quality of educational programs provided in any
well-organized school system or school are largely determined by the qualifications and
contributions of the personnel employed.
Even the best personnel policies, however, will not necessarily result in resolving
some of the basic problems of education in a school system under modern conditions. An
essential, but often neglected, first step is systematic and perceptive planning for the
improvement of all aspects of education. Identification and agreement on appropriate goals,
determination of needs and priorities, development and implementation of relevant
programs and procedures, and other similar steps should provide a sound basis for
developing defensible personnel and salary policies
Although the best plans and policies that can be developed for improving education are
essential, they have little meaning until they are implementedthat is, utilized intelligently
as guides for decisions and actions by everyone concerned or involved. All factors and
conditions in the external, as well as in the internal, environment for education should be
reasonably favorable ifsignificant progress is to be made. These include the attitudes and
expectations of the staff, the community, the board and the administration; the policies
established by law and the state board of education-; the quality of leadership provided; and
many others, including the assurance that sufficient funds will be available to provideadequate and appropriate compensation for all members of the professional, facilitating. and
managerial staff, as well as for facilities, equipment and supplies.
Expenditures for personnel (certificated and noncertifkated) in school systems
constitute from 80 to 85 percent of the funds expended for the current operation of the
schools. Policies relating to the provisions for personnel and the expenditure of these funds
significantly influence the quality of education in a school system. It is important, therefore,
that not only boards of education and school officials but also the citizens in each
community make every effort to ensure that all conditions are favorable and conducive to
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providing a high-quality program of education.
From time to time, various school systems have found themselves confronted with an
especially difficult problem. If financial support has been so limited or if personnel policies
have been so unsatisfactory that the schools have not been doing a good job, many people
become dissatisfied and critical. This tends to make it difficult or impossible to obtain
additional local support. When inadequate funds are responsible for the difficulty, only
exceptionally competent leadership on the part of the board, the citizens of the community,
and the administrative staff, or the provision of additional funds from state sources, can
establish a basis for resolving the dilemma. If, however, the difficulty has arisen primarily
because of unsatisfactory or inadequate personnel policies, it seems apparent that prompt
and effective attention to the improvement of those policies should provide a sound basis for
effecting improvements.
SOME FACTORS THAT AFFECT
PERSONNEL POLICIES AND ADMINISTRATION
Personnel policies are developed and administered in a changing socioeconomic
context. They are influenced by many factors, including new theories and concepts that are
proposed, conclusions based on recent research, new insights and understandings that have
been developed, and the attitudes and expectations of members of the society as well as of
those who are affected by the policies.
Theories Relating to Organization and Management
Theories relating to organization and management have been considerably revised
during recent decades. Attention that was directed primarily to "scientific management" and
"efficiency" some years ago has shifted increasingly during recent years to the consideration
of factors involved in human welfare and relationships within the entire social system.
Selznick, for example, has been concerned primarily with the functions of organizational
goals in assisting the individuals involved to identify their own hopes and aspirations with
the goals of the organization. Argyrols has proposed the following seven processes that are
considered essential if management is to make progress in resolving the fundamental
conflicts that tend to exist between personal hopes and desires and the needs of the
organization:
1. Precise assignment of responsibility;2.Appropriate evaluation and rewards;3.Authority that is binding on all who are in the organization;4.Perpetuation of the organization;
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5.Effective communication;6. Identification with the organization; and7.Pacing the work of the organization.
The basic problem seems to be one of reconciling individual hopes and desires with
organizational needs. McGregor has emphasized the need for acceptance of the principle of
collegial collaboration between "superiors and subordinates"the concept that
subordinates is capable of self-discipline and self-improvement and that integration of
organizational and personal goals is essential if the major goals of the organization are to be
attained.
Fawcett has stated:
Persistent themes permeating the writings of these three men arc (1) the need to establish
clear goals for the organization ... (2) the need to utilize intrinsic motivation for changes in
employee behavior; and (3) the need to work together as colleagues to achieve
co-operatively the goals of the organization. . . . These ideas seem exceptionally well suited
for use by educational governments during the next decade and a half.
Some Important Recent Developments
The socioeconomic setting in which both professional (and certificated) and classified
(non-certificated) personnel in education are operating has changed significantly and
probably will continue to change for a number of reasons. These changes mean that the
relations of management to employed personnel and of employees to management are
viewed from: different perspective, not only by each group but also by the society in which
they function. Although some board members and administrator may attempt to continue
the traditional stance, they can no longer expect to play the autocratic role of "telling the
employees" what they must do a how much they will be paid. Moreover, professional
personnel no longer can afford to pretend that they are concerned only with teaching or Will
improving instruction and need not be concerned with policies or administrative decisions.
The inevitable interrelationships are increasingly brought into sharp focus by the
accumulating experience as well as by the empirical evidence. Some of the major related
developments are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.
A Collegial Situation. All but a small proportion of teachers and other staff members
are college graduates, and many hold a master's of a doctor's degree. Many of them are
better prepared in their areas of specialization than are the principals or superintendents in
the system in which they work. On the other hand, many know little about problems of
management or aspects of education outside their areas of specialization. Thus, the need has
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developed for involving personnel who have much to learn from working together as peers,
and who (as a result of such collaboration) should be in a position to enhance their
contributions to the educational process. Therefore, all should contribute to the
development of policies and should benefit from the contributions of others regardless of
their official status.
Mobility. Under modern conditions, neither teachers nor members of the
administrative or professional service staff need to be place-bound. Those who have
succeededand sometimes those who have failed can move to another location as readily
as students and their parents. Thus, teachers who find a climate unfavorable for service have
tended to seek one they consider more favorable. On the other hand, investments in
retirement and other benefits may constitute constraining influences.
Professional Organizations. The organizations for professional as well as for
noncertificated personnel have increased considerably in numbers and in strength. If local
conditions become very unsatisfactory, the state or national organization may be requested
to assist in bringing about improvements. An employee is no longer an individual who has
to wage a lonely battle for what he considers to be his rights. He can join with others in
seeking justice, defending vested interests, or attempting to bring about changes. His efforts
may be combined with those of others either in waging battles against those involved in
other aspects of education or in planning strategies for the improvement of all aspects of
education. The latter, of course, is' much more constructive.
Bureaucratization. Most school districts in metropolitan areas have been increasing in
population and, in many situations, this increase will continue. Many rural districts are
becoming larger in size and population through reorganization. Largeness tends to result in
bureaucratization involving impersonality and red tape. Policies and regulations developed
in an effort to ensure order and promote efficiency sometimes tend to discourage initiative
and prevent needed adaptations. Personnel, therefore, may either resign themselves to the
routines or struggle to create an organization that will develop policies designed to free them
to make their maximum contributions to the educational program.
Programs Sponsored by State or Federal Governments. Both the state and federal
governments have become increasingly interested in education. Many states are providing
leadership in encouraging research, planning improvements in curriculum and instruction,
and in other ways. Federal funds arc provided for new programs designed to promote stated
or implied national goals. These and other developments arc resulting in many adjustments
in local school systems, and some of them have important implications for personnel.
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Technological Developments. The introduction and use of technology already has
resulted in many changes in business and industry and in some aspects of government. It has
already had considerable impact upon education. Many authorities believe that the most
significant changes in education are still to come and that these will have many important
implications for which there has been comparatively little planning. Some of the
implications that are already apparent include:
1. The possibility of more meaningful individualization of certain aspects of learningadapted to the needs of each student;
2.Changes in many aspects of the traditional role of teachers that will enable them tofunction more nearly on a professional level;
3.The need for more careful planning, utilizing a systems approach to ensure that thetechnological developments are utilized intelligently and effectively to enhance
educational opportunitiesand not merely to increase efficiency of operation:
4.The emergence of many new kinds of roles and types of positions in education and of theapparent need to develop a team approach to deal with many aspects of the program; and
5.The probability that the concept of a single salary schedule will no longer be appropriate.Harris and Boulding, among others, have directed attention to certain pertinent facts
and conclusions:
1. The ratio of the amount required for salaries of personnel to the total budget requirementin education has changed very little during recent years.
2. There seems to be increasing resistance to rising costs, even though the need for moreadequate education should be apparent to everyone.
3.Unless education can find an effective way to utilize some of the technologicaldevelopments in an appropriate manner and to adjust personnel assignments realistically,
we may be headed for serious difficulties that could handicap the development of the
nation.
Koerner believes many legislators, board members, and even educators have been
asking the wrong questions about the use of technology in classrooms and that the basic
questions should be concerned with what we should be doing, but cannot do under present
arrangements, and how technology can help. He stated, "I look forward to the time when the
quality of American education at all levels can catch up with the quantity" and concluded
that technology, when properly developed and utilized, could help to bring that about.
Although there are some indications that the wise use of appropriate technologies should
help to improve education, there are no definite indications that it would result in decreasing
http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/Harrishttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/Harris -
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costs.
Laws and Court Decisions. As pointed out in chapter 1, there have been not only some
important improvements in legislation relating to education in a number of states during
recent years but also some significant state and federal court decisions that have important
implications for the rights of students as well as for those of teachers and other personnel
involved in the educational process. Every child not only has the right to the benefits that
can be provided through access to education "which must be made available to all on equal
terms," but also has the right to be treated and respected as an individual who may not be
subjected to arbitrary and unreasonable controls or restrictions. Moreover, the rights of
teachers and other professional personnel to bargain or negotiate collectively not only for
salaries but for other benefits and privileges have been authorized by law and are well
established in many states. These and other related developments have many implications
not only for personnel policies but also for provisions for the financial support of education.
Evaluation and Accountability. The idea of "evaluating" teachers and others involved
in the educational process is perhaps as old as the idea of providing schools. Unfortunately,
the criteria for evaluation often were not stated and, consequently, at least some of the
evaluations were unfair or subject to misinterpretation. Many people currently believe that
the focus, the context, and the procedures should be changed in an effort to deal effectively
with modern conditions and needs.
The concept of accountability in and for education has been generally accepted during
the past few years as useful and appropriate, primarily because it: (1) directs attention to the
results of the educational process rather than to its components: (2) attempts to fix
responsibility for these results; and (3) is concerned with the consequences of the
resultsthat is, whether the results represent poor, fair, or satisfactory progress.
There are, however, many problems and cautions that should be carefully considered.
Lander has listed several including:
Every writer or speaker should make clear his definition or point of view regardingaccountability;
It is impossible to discuss sensibly the problems of accountability without reference tothe goals of education;
It would appear necessary to relate the new concepts in accountability to existingprocedures and practices; and
There is a real danger that the aims of education will be increasingly restricted to thosewhich can most easily be measured rather than those which arc most important.
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The concept of accountability is not limited to teachers and students, nor to the results
shown by scores on standardized tests. Almost everyone (ranging from legislators who may
support helpful or handicapping laws through board members who establish policies,
administrators, teachers, students, and parents) has an important role to play in facilitating
or retarding progress in improving education and, therefore, has some responsibility for the
outcomes of the accountability process.
POLICIES RELATING TO PERSONNEL AND FINANCE
The development of appropriate personnel policies is of crucial importance in every
state and local school system. In fact, policy planning is a major aspect of comprehensive
long-range planning, which is essential for the continuous improvement of education in any
school system. These plans and policies should include careful consideration of: (1) the
aims (the establishment and maintenance of instructional and instructional-support
programs); (2) the organizational structure (concerned especially with positions generated
by the aims structure); and (3) personnel processes (those designed to attract, develop, and
retain personnel needed to maintain and improve the system generated by the aims
structure). Each of these important personnel processes must, of course, be further
subdivided into sequential tasks that are essential to achieve the purposes and goals of the
system. All of the major policies established through this process have important
implications for the financial support that is essential if the system is to function effectively.
Policies relating to personnel may be stated in law, in state and local board regulations,
and in administrative directives, or they may be unwritten and consequently somewhat
intangible. Both the written and the unwritten policies are important in every community.
Written policies serve for guidance and are expected to be observed until they are repealed
or revised. The unwritten policies are often the most difficult with which to deal. They are
expressed through the attitude of the people of the community, of the board, and of the
administrative staff toward teachers and other employees. This attitude determines the
climate or conditions under which school personnel have to work. It may indirectly affect,
and in some cases determine, what is included and what is not included in written policy. If
the attitude is favorable to schools and to school personnel, working conditions are likely to
be better and morale much higher than if the attitude is one of distrust, suspicion, and
criticism. In fact, the attitude of the people of a state or community may determine whether
the funds provided for salaries and the salaries paid are adequate or inadequate and even
may have a decided effect on whether these funds are used wisely or unwisely in terms of
the personnel services provided.
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Almost all policies developed in a state or local school system have some
implications for personnel. For example, if a local school boardbecause of inadequate
understanding of modern educational needs or a false concept of economyauthorizes the
construction of inflexible school buildings or provides inappropriate equipment, it may be
unable to attract or hold progressive-minded teachers, even though the personnel policies
may be well formulated. Moreover, the scope of polices relating directly to personnel is
much broader than many boards and administrators have realized. The failure to develop
appropriate policies in any pertinent area eventually may result in difficulties.
Some of the areas in which policies in many school systems are likely to be lacking or
inadequate are: employment, responsibilities, and relationships of instructional assistants,
Para professionals, and interns; the procedures and relationships in grievances and
professional negotiations; and the role of teachers and other staff members in the
development and revision of policies. In many school systems, the board has given
relatively little attention to developing policies for noncertifcated personnel and to the
relations between these policies and those for certificated personnel. Yet these relationships
are likely to be of vital importance in developing the educational program.
Basis for Development of Policies
The procedure used in developing policies relating to personnel may be as significant
as the policies themselves. If the board and superintendent do not respect the members of the
staff enough to seek their cooperation in preparing statements that are vital to morale and to
the satisfactory functioning of the program, the staff will become aware of their point of
view, and this awareness is almost certain to affect their attitude and their work.
The procedures to be used in developing or revising statements of policy relating to
personnel need to be carefully thought through in every school system. These procedures
should be worked out with the cooperation of the staff, and if that is done, the members of
the staff undoubtedly will have an opportunity to participate in developing the policy
statements. The citizens of the community also should be vitally interested in these policies.
Many boards, therefore, have involved lay citizens, along with staff members, in the process
of developing or revising policies to be proposed for adoption. The board must adopt
policies before they can become official, but the proposals should originate, or at least be
worked through, with the staff members and perhaps with leading citizens and should have
their concurrence. This is essential if policies are to be satisfactorily implemented.
Characteristics of Satisfactory Policies
Policies constitute an expression of the values the people of a state or community, the
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members of a board of education, and thesuperintendent attach to school personnel and
their services. They are to some extent an expression of philosophy or point of view and
therefore are significant in determining the potential and the limitations. Most authorities
agree that good personnel policies should:
Make clear that the dignity and worth of individual members of the staff are to berecognized and respected in the operation of the educational program:
Provide for and encourage creativeness and originality on the part of all members of thestaff;
Emphasize the importance of competency and quality in staff selection; Encourage and provide opportunities for continuous improvement on the part of all
members of the staff;
Assure adequate compensation, insofar as practicable, under a plan that will berecognized as fair and equitable by all concerned;
Recognize that the best possible working conditions for all staff members are necessaryto facilitate development of a good program of education;
Be stated in written form sufficiently definite to be meaningful, but not so detailed, orexpressed in such a way, as to restrict desirable initiative, and of course be readily
available for the guidance of all staff members; and
Be developed with the cooperation and participation of all persons who are concernedwith, or will be affected by, their implementation.
Factors Affecting Personnel and Finance Policies
As a result of recent developments, including those discussed in an earlier section,
personnel administration in education has moved from a position of somewhat peripheral,
and largely managerial, concern to one of central concern for the human condition as well as
for organizational goals. Studies by psychologists, sociologists and economists and the
resulting modifications in management theory have contributed significantly to this
development, which has had considerable influence in industry as well as in education.
Several major publications have helped to direct attention to, and provide a better
understanding of, the role of human relations in educational administration. 11 Modern
concern both for employees and for students, therefore, has been directed increasingly to the
maximum development and utilization of the potential of individuals and to efforts to
encourage greater self-direction and responsibility
Nygaard and Roelfs listed the following factors relating to the concern for, and
commitment to, quality in education that have important implications for personnel and
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finance:
Urbanization and the unique problems of financing education in large cities; The growth of teacher union membership and the absence of a unified school employee
organization;
The employment of sanctions and collective bargaining procedures by teacher groups; The demands and consequences of automation as it will affect both teaching and
nonteaching groups;
The public's persistent demand for more and better general, technical and professionaleducation;
The increased concern for education of the dropout, the juvenile delinquent the migratorychild, minority groups, and the exceptional child;
Experimentation with new concepts of staff utilization; National concern for the development in many states of community colleges adult
education programs, and reshaped career and vocational education programs; and
The gradual move toward a longer school year and employment of teachers and otherschool employees on a yearly basis.
Changing Concepts Concerning Education. It no longer is appropriate for teachers to
serve primarily as transmitters of information to students. Instead, they have a much more
important role to assumethat is, to serve as facilitators of learning
to help students learn
how to learn and to guide them in the process. In this role they will need many kinds of
assistancehuman, mechanical, and electronicand the understanding support of
representatives of a system designed to provide the kind and quality of education that will
meet emerging needs.
Some speakers and writers apparently have assumed that teachers may tend to become
modern Luddites who will organize to resist the introduction and utilization of technology
and other recent developments in education. The fact that technology has been used only to
a limited extent thus far probably is due primarily to three factors:
1. Many educators have not had an opportunity to learn how to use technology effectivelyto achieve appropriate educational objectives.
2. Its introduction usually involves extra expense, and funds have been in short supplyunless they have been obtainable from foundations or for federally supported projects.
3. Some developments for which glowing claims have been made have not beenconvincingly field-tested.
There is no evidence that technology or other similar developments can, or should, replace
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teachers or other instructional personnel. However, these developments will undoubtedly
facilitate, or necessitate, changes in roles and will create a demand for new kinds of
professional and technical service personnel. This, in turn, will have important implications
for programs of preparation, salary policies, and budgets.
Although there is no agreement concerning the new kinds of personnel that will be
needed, there are some indications as to probabilities. Loughery has proposed that in
addition to team-teaching leaders, expert television instructors, and other roles that have
already begun to emerge, school systems will need content-research specialists, new kinds
of media specialists, systems analysts, and educational engineers to work with or assist
instruction teams. Establishing such positions probably will lead to salary differentials and,
as Fawcett has suggested, perhaps to "a salary schedule based on an estimate of the value of
each position to the accomplishment of the goals of the organization."
Collective Negotiation or Bargaining. The demand for negotiations not only on
salaries and salary policies but also on many other policies has spread rapidly during the
past few years. Several states have passed laws on the subject, and proposals for laws are
being considered in others. Not only is there a substantial body of literature on the subject,
but also the American Association of School Administrators has considered the matter of
sufficient importance to issue a special report including some valuable guides and cautions.
The purpose of this brief discussion is to point out some of the implications for the financing
of education. The most important seem to be:
Budgets in most school systems are being and will continue to be more care-fullystudied than ever before, and the pressure on the board to devote a larger proportion to
salaries probably will increase in many cases;
In districts where additional funds can be provided only by vote of the people, sharpconflicts over proposals to increase taxes for schools will continue, and these will tend
to result in antagonisms between some conservative elements and teachers;
In communities where salaries traditionally have been low, demands for salaryimprovements will increase;
Educators and lay citizens have begun to realize that only limited improvements can bemade in salaries and other provisions for supporting schools from local tax sources
without imposing an unreasonable burden on the taxpayers and, in most instances, on
property taxes; and
More attention is being focused on funds obtained from state sources as offering the bust
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possibility for effecting improvements. Increasing attention, therefore, probably will be
devoted to state-wide negotiations and pressures.
Although most authorities seem to agree that more adequate support for education,
including better salaries for personnel, is essential in some school districts, many have
expressed some concerns and cautions. These include:
If significant improvements are to be made, greater unity in the ranks of educators willbe essential. There is danger that progress in improving the support of education will be
retarded by a bitter struggle between rival teacher organizations and between these
groups and administrators and boards of education.
The problem of effecting needed improvements in education will not be solved merelyby increasing salaries of teachers. There are many other needs to be met, and educational
organizations as well as lay citizens need to keep this in mind.
There are limits to increases that may be made in salaries on the basis of employment fornine or ten months. Moreover, this traditional concept is in urgent need of revision if the
educational needs of modern society arc to be met. If provision is made for longer terms,
year-round operations, or appropriate programs during the summer months, more
adequate education can be provided, and higher annual salaries probably will be
recognized as essential.
STATE PROVISIONS RELATING TO SALARIES
As previously pointed out, state laws and regulations may affect rather directly
the salary provisions and other possibilities in the various school districts in the state. If only
limited funds for schools are provided from state sources, the salary levels in each school
system will be determined chiefly by the willingness and the ability of the citizens in the
district to provide funds for schools. In such states, salaries in the leas wealthy districts
generally may be expected to be much lower than those in the wealthiest. However, when an
adequate and realistic state foundation program has been established, all districts, regardless
of their wealth should be in a reasonably satisfactory position (unless restricted by other
state laws) to develop reasonably adequate salary schedules.
Many states, because of concern about this problem, have taken one step or another
relating directly to salaries. Several have established state minimum salary schedules. West
Virginia apparently established the first state minimum salary law in 1882. By 1937, twenty
states had some kind of minimum salary legislation; by 1951 there were thirty-one (or thirty
three including Alaska and Hawaii). Since that time, a few states that previously had
minimum salary schedules have taken steps either to discontinue the state schedules or to
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modify and simplify the schedule. In 197172, twenty-one states reported that minimum
salary or salary allotment schedules were used in apportioning funds for schools. There are
three major types of state minimum salary laws relating to teachers: (1) those that provide a
state minimum salary schedule recognizing both training and experience (2) those that fix
minimum salaries on the basis of two or more flat rates but with no recognition of
experience, and (3) those that fix the minimum salary as a single flat amount.
The interest of states in minimum salary schedules first developed largely because
salaries paid in some districts obviously were totally inadequate. Those who were
concerned with the problem apparently assumed that if a state minimum salary schedule
could be established by law. the problem would be solved. However, it was soon discovered
that many poor districts could not maintain a desirable pupil-teacher ratio or a satisfactory
length of term and afford to pay the minimum salaries required for all teachers. Since state
laws in many cases require a certain minimum length of term, the only alternatives for these
districts were to maintain only the minimum term, increase the number of pupils per teacher,
employ only teachers with minimum training, or levy excessive taxes.
The tendency in most states during recent years seems to be in the direction of
attempting to develop an adequate and realistic plan for financing schools from state and
local revenues. Progress in this direction facilitates provisions for reasonably adequate
salaries, rather than emphasizing minimum salaries as the basic salary policy.
SALARY POLICIES AND SCHEDULES
Policies relating to salaries, the salaries teachers should receive, and plans for paying
these salaries have involved much discussion in practically every community and state since
schools first were established. They still provoke considerable controversy in many areas.
Determination of Salary Policy
Salary policies constitute one important aspect of general personnel policies. There has
been a decided tendency during the past quarter of a century for districts to develop written
statements relating to salary policy. These usually are developed with the cooperation of the
staff or through the joint efforts of representatives from the staff and citizens of the
community. These groups, however, can only recommendsalary policy, and the boards may
or may not approve the recommendations. However, when committees have done a good
job of developing sound policies, the recommendations usually have been approved by the
boards without major alteration.
The purposes of salary policies are to give assurance to the community that sound
procedures will be observed in compensating employees, to give assurance to the staff that
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recognized policies rather than haphazard procedures will be followed, and to provide
guidance to the administrator and his staff in developing satisfactory procedures for
obtaining and retaining the services of competent personnel.
Suggestions for salary policies or schedules have been made in a number of studies.
The suggestions set forth in the following paragraph, as adapted from those proposed for
teachers by the Winnetka Citizens Advisory Committee twenty years ago, are more
advanced in some respects than those adopted recently in many other school systems.
The salary plan should:
1. Meet reasonable competition for good beginning teachers without attempting to offerthe highest starting salary;
2. Assure dignified living standards for maturing personnel;3. Assure relief from hardship for heads of households;4. Contribute an uplifting influence to the dignity and prestige of teaching in the United
States;
5. Help to attract and hold teachers and principals of the highest quality;6. Stimulate increased graduate study through the master's degree;7. Encourage study, research, and travel beyond the master's degree;8. Provide adequate and dignified maximum salaries for teachers for whom teaching is
only a part of their career;
9. Provide markedly distinguished salaries for teachers who, in the tradition of thecommunity, make substantial and measurable contributions to education in the district
and in the United States;
10.Provide a relatively long period for salary improvement before reaching maxima, butwith safeguards against automatic advancement if a teacher's work is unsatisfactory;
11.Provide annual increments of sufficient amount to be "felt";12.Contrary to long-established tradition, provide an opportunity for teachers to achieve
professional distinction and corresponding salary recognition without leaving teaching
for administrative or supervisory personnel;
13.Recognize any special economic factors in the community; and14.Serve the long term needs of the district, the board of education, and the faculty, and not
be merely a temporizing, stopgap measure.
The Winnetka Committee also recommended policies that would provide adequate
leave for study, conferences, and travel and generous fringe benefits for all personnel. The
importance of adequate provision for in-service education was likewise indicated as
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necessary board policy in addition to the salary policies proposed.
Salary Levels
Education and other governmental services are in a much different position than those
in business and industry. If salaries of public employees are increased, the cost must be met
through the proceeds of taxes levied on and paid by the citizens. Almost everyone watches
taxes carefully. Many assume that the more money they must use to pay taxes, the less they
have for private use. However, as pointed out in chapter 4, certain governmental secures,
and especially education, may contribute to the productivity and to the tax paying ability of
the peoplea fact not commonly recognized. If salaries paid by business and industry are
raised, the increases must come either from increased production per man-hour or from
profits or be passed on to the consumer in price increases. There is very little the consumer
can do directly about price increases for products he wants. Yet from one point of view,
these increases may be similar to indirect taxes. The consumer has to pay these costs if he
purchases the goods, but he, along with others, may have the means rather directly at hand to
keep down or limit tax levies and price increases for public services.
For some reason, many citizens fail to realize that in a capitalistic society, the values
people hold are reflected in part by the prices they are willing to pay for products and
services. Thus, the salaries paid teachers and other educational personnel in the various
states and communities are always partly a reflection of economic conditions and partly an
indication of the importance attached by the citizens to education and teaching.
The question the American people are attempting to resolve in this respect is: How
much should teachers and other school employees be paid in order to attract to education
sufficient people with adequate competence and qualifications to provide the kind of schools
and education needed in this country? It is apparent that this question has not been
satisfactorily resolved. Salaries of teachers in particular traditionally have tended to lag
behind those of equally well-prepared people in business and industry \s one result,
insufficient numbers of highly competent people have been attracted to education, the
schools have not accomplished as much as the people seem to expect, and many people have
been critical. Criticisms of salary policies and other matters will be beneficial if they result
in a re-orientation of the thinking of the people and the development of better perspectives
regarding the significance and role of public education but will be harmful if they result in
decreased support and lowered morale
Salary levels for teachers and other school employees have varied considerably, both
among and within states. The average salary of teachers in states such as California and New
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York has been considerably higher than the average in states such as Arkansas, South
Dakota, and Mississippi. This marked difference has helped to make it possible for many of
the states paying among the highest salaries (usually among the most wealthy states) to
attract large numbers of teachers from those paving the lowest salaries (usually among the
least wealthy states). Similar conditions prevail, of course, within states in which there are
wide ranges in average salaries paid teachers in the various districts
The widest range in salaries tends to be found in the states with little state support and
a large number of small districts. A somewhat smaller range is found in states with properly
organized districts and a reasonably adequate state plan for financial support.
The arrangements made for salaries also differ considerably among district. For many
years, salaries in most districts were negotiated with individual employees. Districts
commonly paid men more than women' high school teachers more than elementary
teachers, and some individuals in each group more than others. Such hit-and-miss
provisions led to dissatisfactions. As districts increased in size, the need for a better plan
was recognized by all concerned. Within the last half-century, most school districts have
developed teachers' salary plans or schedules based chiefly on training and experience.
Many of the larger districts also have developed schedules for compensation of
noncertificated employees, but smaller districts have lagged in this respect. Some districts
have schedules for all members of the administrative and supervisory staff, but many do not.
In many districts the salary of the superintendent is negotiated with the board, except that
districts generally try to keep somewhat in line with salaries paid in other districts
comparable in size and wealth.
Some Trends in Developing Schedules
A salary schedule is simply a plan for compensating individual members of any group
of employees, such as principals, teachers, secretaries, or custodians. This plan may be good
or bad, satisfactory or unsatisfactory, in whole or in part. Givens noted some years ago that:
"Salary schedules for teachers are social inventions that have been developed by insight and
ingenuity to meet the problems of personnel administration in the schools."
As previously indicated, there has been a distinct movement toward the development
of salary schedules for all groups of school employees. Some additional trends are discussed
briefly below.
For some years, there has been a marked trend toward the establishment ofsingle-salary schedules for teachers. In the single-salary schedule, the plan for paying
salaries is based on the training and experience of the persons employed. However, there
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now seems to be some tendency for this policy to be modified.
For certain types of employees, there recently has been a good deal of considerationof job evaluation as one basis for salary schedules and placement on schedules. This has
been particularly evident in the development of schedules for noncertificated employees
and to some extent has been considered in connection with schedules for administrative,
supervisory, and certain other types of positions. It seems likely to receive much further
consideration as new types of positions develop in education. In industry there have been
many studies involving job evaluation. According to Davis,
Job evaluation is an accepted management practice which sets each job value into
proper relation with each other, primarily for wage purposes. It provides what is
usually called an internal alignment of jobs. This alignment is established by a
scientific procedure which is sometimes considered to be so "objective" that most
human relation conflicts over wages are removed.
Cost and standard of living factors have been emphasized increasingly during thelast couple of decades. It is generally accepted that school employees must be able to
maintain an adequate standard of living if they are to work effectively. It is evident,
however, that the objective of salaries that will enable all employees to maintain an
adequate standard of living has not been attained.
For a number of years, minimum salaries provided in schedules were increased morerapidly than maximum salaries. However, there is some indication that maximum salaries
are tending to be increased as much as, or at a somewhat higher rate than, minimum salaries,
thus tending to restore the balance that was upset by special cost-of-living and other
adjustments resulting from postwar and other economic developments.
In a number of school systems, an effort has been made to provide maximumsalaries, especially in the higher ranks, that are at least twice as high as those established as
minimums. Only a few systems have been able to attain this goal.
The fact that proper preparation is essential for satisfactory teaching in modernsociety has come to be recognized increasingly. As a means of encouraging professional
personnel to complete their college training before accepting full-time positions and also as
a means of providing an incentive for teachers who have not completed their college degrees
to do so, the differential in salaries for the two groups has gradually been increased in a
number of school systems. Many systems also recognize that there are places and needs for
experienced teachers who have completed preparation beyond the master's degree;
consequently, there has been a tendency to add another column to the schedule. There has
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also been some tendency for the increments based on experience to be increased.
Within the past few years, numerous districts have adopted an index salary
schedule. Some states that have established salary schedules are also considering this plan.
Instead of stating a dollar amount for each rank and step in the schedule, only a base amount
is stated in dollarsfor example, eight thousand dollars for a beginning teacher who is a
college graduate. An index number (such as 1.1) is then assigned for teachers who hold a
master's degree, and the salary can readily be determined in relationship to the basic
amount, whatever it may be. Similarly, salary amounts for each step of experience can be
determined by applying an appropriate index number.
There has been some tendency to consider factors other than training and experiencefor teachers as well as for other groups of employees. For instance, some systems have
adopted, or are experimenting with, a plan for relating salaries, to some extent, to the level
of responsibility for certain kinds of positions. Others are attempting to evaluate and
recognize merit and to provide special increments for merit. Still others have made some
provision for dependency allowances, and so on.
The length of service during the year for various school employees has beenincreased in many systems. Sometimes this has been accomplished by increasing the length
of the term and many times by providing for needed educational and other services during
the summer. Schedules in many systems thus provide for adjustments for length of service
beyond the traditional school year.
PROCEDURES IN DEVELOPING SCHEDULES
Since the acceptance of any salary policy or plan depends largely upon the satisfaction
or agreement of those who are involved and concerned, the procedures used in preparing the
proposal are of considerable importance. When any changes are proposed, decisions must
be made as to who initiates the process, who carries out the study, and who prepares he
report. The initiative in bringing up the issue may rest with the teachers, with the board
members, with the superintendent, or even, perhaps, with representative citizens of the
community. Three general kinds of patterns are recognized in developing proposals for
salary schedule improvement. These are (1) the administration-board-sponsored plan. (2)
the teacher-sponsored plan, and (3) the cooperatively sponsored plan.
Most plans were administration-sponsored until comparatively recent years. In
administration-sponsored plans, several procedures have been followed. In many districts,
during earlier years, the board authorized work on the schedule, and the superintendent and
perhaps members of his staff did the work and submitted the plan for approval by the board.
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In more recent years, many boards of education have appointed a citizens advisory
committee or a staff committee to conduct the study and propose changes. Sometimes the
board has engaged the services of a consultant or a group of consultants to conduct the study
and propose improvements.
Teacher participation in initiating improvements and drafting salary schedules has
increased greatly during the past few years. In teacher-sponsored plans, the local association
or union usually organizes a salary committee, and this committee gathers the data, makes a
study, and develops a proposal for revising the schedule. After the proposal has been
approved by the teachers' group, it is presented to the board for action.
In cooperatively sponsored plans, teachers and representatives from the administration
usually meet together to consider the problem and to plan the study. The committee that
actually makes the study usually includes representatives from the teachers' groups, the
administration, and perhaps the board and, in many cases, includes representative lay
citizens. As pointed out by Reller some years ago:
The trend of wider participation is . . . supported by the view that in a democratic society the
various parties involved in a matter should participate in working out basic policy decisions.
This point of view requires that teachers, secretaries, and other personnel groups, as well as
administrators and citizens, be represented in the development of schedules.
There are many indications that the questions concerning procedures to be used in
developing salary schedules and salary provisions for the budget, whether for teachers or for
other school groups, are among the most troublesome and controversial being faced in many
school districts It is no longer acceptable for the board and the superintendent to make
decisions regarding salary policy or salaries without consulting teachers This procedure is
no more satisfactory to noncertificated personnel than to those who are certificated.
However, it may be equally unsatisfactory, as far as board members and perhaps the
administration and citizens of the community are concerned, for teachers or noncertificated
employees to develop their own salary proposals and demand that they be approved as
submitted.
OTHER ECONOMIC BENEFITS
Although salaries are important in establishing the basic economic position of each group of
employees, other benefits should have as careful consideration as salary policy. A policy
that attempts to provide reasonably adequate salaries without considering other economic
benefits or working conditions is not as satisfactory as a similar policy that place
considerable emphasis on the other benefits.
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For this reason, most groups devote considerable attention to this problem. For
example the Winnetka Citizens Advisory Committee carefully considered what it called
"supplemental employee benefits" and recommended a supplementary retirement plan,
provisions for group life insurance, a comprehensive medical expense insurance program,
and disability insurance. The report stated:
With the establishment of these new employee benefit plans the Winnetka school system
will have policies comparable to modern industrial practice and well in advance of current
educational practice. They should be of material aid in attracting and holding the quality of
personnel we need
Although all states now have retirement plans, either for teachers or including teachers
and other employees, some of these are not realistic or adequate in the light of recent
developments. Some still limit the salaries that may be used in computing retirement
benefits, others fail to provide for survivors, and some are not on a sound actuarial basis.
Development of adequate retirement provisions, perhaps supplemented by state provisions
including or comparable to those for Social Security (see chap. 17), seems to be essential for
every state.
The provisions of workmen's compensation laws are applicable to teachers and other
school employees in most states. Although these seem to have been working out reasonably
satisfactorily, improvements are needed in many states, and existing provisions probably
should be supplemented by plans for group life, accident, and even liability insurance.
Practically all the larger school systems have reasonably adequate provisions for
certain kinds of leaves of absence. In some cases, these provisions are state-wide. Usually,
sick leave may be taken without loss of compensation, up to a designated number of days
per year, cumulative up to several months over a period of years. Many small school
systems, however, have no provisions along this line or have inadequate provisions. For
example, in some cases, teachers who have to be absent must pay the salaries of substitutes.
Provisions for sabbatical leave are found in some of the larger school systems but in
practically none of the smaller systems. Perhaps some state-wide leave and sabbatical plan
would help to resolve this problem.
Assurance of reasonable security in employment has significant economic
implications. Some states have gone so far in providing tenure for teachers that discharge of
incompetent teachers seems usually difficult and expensive. Others still do not have
satisfactory provisions for tenure or continuity of service, especially for smaller districts.
Reasonable assurance that employees who are rendering effective service are not subject to
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loss of position at the whim of a board or a superintendent should be expected in all states.
SOME PROBLEMS AND ISSUES
Although researchers have tried to establish objective criteria for salary schedules for more
than half a century, it is generally conceded that these standards have not yet been
determined. The size of our country and the social and cultural backgrounds represented
make these criteria a complex task.
As implied by this statement, there are many unresolved problems and issues relating
to personnel and finance. A few of the more controversial are discussed in the following
pages.
What "Collective Bargaining" or "Negotiation" Procedures Are Appropriate for Use in
Determining Salaries for Teachers?
Some teachers and teacher organizations apparently believe that the only way they can
obtain adequate salaries is to establish their own committee, make their own studies, and
reach their own conclusions. When the studies have been completed and the teachers have
agreed upon what they think would be desirable, they insist on having an opportunity to
present their demands at a meeting of the board. If the board approves the proposal, the
group is satisfied until the next year, when the same procedure may be followed except the
demands may be considerably increased. However, if the board should refuse to accept the
proposal, the teachers are likely to call a strike or take their case to the public and try to show
that the board is unreasonable.
As a result of teacher-board controversies or strikes, many people may get the
impression that there is something wrong with the school system. Some may consider the
teachers unreasonable; others may blame the board or superintendent. The community thus
may tend to become divided. However, some people believe this procedure tends to
stimulate the public to become better informed about the schools and thus ultimately may
bring about more adequate salaries than would otherwise be obtained.
In some cases, this procedure seems to have been carried to an extreme. When the
board has indicated that some increases might be made but that the resources will not permit
all the increases proposed, the teachers' committee has insisted that there be no
compromises. Teachers in some communities have insisted that they do not want common
ground with either the superintendent or the board and that the only way they can make
progress is to keep the superintendent and board on the defensive.
There are other communities in which superintendent, board, and teachers seem to be
making a sincere attempt to work together. Teachers recognize that the board has serious
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problems in attempting to assure adequate support for the schools without excessive tax
levies, and the board grants that teachers' salaries have not been adequate. The board, the
teachers, and the superintendent discuss their common problems periodically and attempt to
develop procedures that will make it possible to arrive at satisfactory solutions.
Under what conditions are teachers justified in taking a "collective bargaining" or
"negotiation" attitude with reference to salaries? What about other employees? Should
teachers and other employees take the position that there is common ground and that they
should seek to discover it, or should they take an "adversary" position? Why? Under what
conditions, if any, should teachers call a strike?
How Should Salaries of Administrative and Supervisory Staff Members Be Determined?
In some school systems, the position is taken that administrators and supervisors are
paid for their administrative competence and leadership qualities and that these have no
relationship to the preparation and experience of teachers. However, authorities point out
that principals and others are leaders of teachers as well as administrators. Many hold that
there should be some defensible relationship between salaries of teachers and those of
administrators and supervisors. On the assumption that some relationship should exist,
attempts have been made to devise a formula that can be used in developing a schedule for
salaries of administrators and supervisors. Should the salaries of administrators and
supervisors be based on a ratio to teachers' salaries and automatically increased as teachers'
salaries are increased? Could administrators represent the board of education in collective
bargaining with teachers if their salaries were tied to the teacher salary schedule? Should
school administrators represent the board in the collective bargaining process?
In more than two-thirds of the larger school systems, the salary schedules for
administrative and supervisory personnel have been related rather directly to the salary
schedules for teachers. More than one-half of these were based on an index or ratio adjusted
to the schedule for teachers.
For some time, many school systems that have provided summer or extended-year
programs for some students and teachers have recognized that a time factor should be
utilized in determining the additional compensation for teachers who serve beyond the
regular school term. Thus, one-ninth would be added to the salary of a teacher who served
for a month beyond the regular term of nine months. This factor is also utilized for
administrators and supervisors who serve beyond the customary term.
The other factor commonly utilized in the index is a responsibility ratio that can be
utilized for all professional personnel who have assignments requiring special competencies
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and extra responsibilities. For example, if the responsibility ratio for a regular teacher is 1.0,
the ratio for the head of a teaching team might be 1.15, that for a principal of a large school
might be 1.75 to 2.00. Such ratios need to be developed on the basis of detailed studies and
analyses made with the concurrence of the entire professional staff.
Should salaries of principals, supervisors, and other professional employees bear some
agreed-upon ratio to salaries that would be paid those persons if they were serving as
teachers? If so, what formula should be used?
What, if Any, Provision Should Be Made for "Merit in Salary Schedules?
Many lay citizens insist that salaries of teachers should be related in some way to
competency. When salary increases are proposed, these citizens frequently state that they
would be willing to sec much higher salaries paid for the most competent teachers but that
increasing salaries for all teachers would be equivalent to wasting a lot of money. They
insist that industry has had merit pay plans for a number of years and has used them
successfully, and that these plans could readily be adapted for use by the schools.
Many teachers and administrators' have tended to oppose merit pay. They call
attention to the fact that merit-pay plans are used only for certain types of positions in
industry and that seniority is the major factor in determining salary for many other types of
positions. They point out that most salary schedules in education are based on training and
experience and that the training factor supplemented by experience is superior to the
seniority factor alone. They call attention; moreover, to the difficulty of establishing any
effective plan for determining merit in teaching and point to the danger that subjective
factors will enter into a merit rating plan. Davis stated:
A merit wage system is primarily a procedure for one person to make subjective
judgment about another, which means that it is fraught with human relations problems and
is one of the most difficult of all personnel practices to administer. Its human problems
cluster around the merit-increase philosophy, the rating process, and the use of rating data
for merit increases.
A University of California study led to the following conclusions:
1.Industry, business and government do not pay employees on a merit program base to theextent which is sometimes assumed or to the extent claimed by some proponents of
merit-pay programs for teachers.
2.The purposes and nature of the work situation in business and teaching have little incommon.
3.Large gaps in thinking must be bridged before common ground is found for those who
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arc in one way or another interested or involved in the merit-pay question.
4.If the purpose of merit-pay is to raise the level of teaching performance. serious questionscan be raised as to whether it alone holds much promise; if the purpose of merit-pay
programs is to reward outstanding teachers, then consideration should be given to various
possible ways of offering rewards.
The report made several suggestions for school districts considering the merit-pay
question, including:
1.Establish the purposes of the proposed program and secure the acceptance of thesepurposes by the parties affected.
2.Establish a committee representative of the various interested parties to study thequestion and then to develop proposals for the district in question.
3.Provide essential resources for the committee to make the necessary studies.4.Consider the relationships of any proposal to the basic teacher-salary question in the
district.
5.Provide for a widespread review of various aspects of the proposal as they are developed.6.Regard any program adopted as highly tentative and provide for its review in the light of
results.
7.Consider and develop any program as but one element in an expanded program ofimproving conditions within the school system recognizing that many factors affect
teaching performance.
In the light of all the discussions and developments connected with merit rating,
should school systems attempt to incorporate the concept in their salary schedules? If the
attempt is made, what are some of the difficulties? What steps can be taken toward resolving
the problem of merit rating?
Should Adjustments in Salaries Be Made on the Basis of a Cost of Living Index?
A few school systems have related salaries to the Consumer's Price Index. The idea has
been proposed in a number of school systems and even has been considered by some states
as a basis for determining the amount of the apportionment for salaries or even for the state
aid program
Some of the arguments in favor of using a cost-of-living index to adjust salary amounts
in a schedule are:
1.Many discussions and controversies regarding salary adjustments could be avoided.2.The use of an index would provide for an automatic plan for adjustments and would
eliminate subjective factors.
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3.Salaries would automatically increase or decrease as the cost of living increased ordecreased.
Some of the points brought out in opposition to the use of theConsumer's Price Index
and, perhaps by implication, to the use of any index are as follows:
1. The Consumer's Price Index does not necessarily mean that the cost of living is higher inone community than in another but merely shows the extent to which the cost of living
has increased in each city for which an index is given.
2. The consumer's Price Index does not reflect adequately the cost of living for aprofessional person because it is based largely on the need of wage earners and clerical
workers.
3. Salaries for teachers and other school employees in many school systems have notcaught up with increases in salaries paid many other kinds of workers; and,
consequently, if any cost-of-living index were tied topresent salaries, it would merely
result in an adjustment upward or downward of salaries that are already inadequate
and would not provide for desirable improvements. Many teachers believe that
before there is any attempt to use a cost-of-living index to adjust salaries, there should
be more realistic and comprehensive studies of standards of living and of budget
requirements for various standards of living. Perhaps another step should be to devise a
cost-of-living index for professional people and to use this index instead of the
Consumer's Price Index for determining adjustments in salaries of teachers.
How could a satisfactory cost-of-living index for teachers be determined? Would this
be suitable for other school employees? Should corrections be made for increases in
productivity? If so, how? What, if any, procedures can be suggested for moving away from
the annual or periodic salary negotiations now found in many communities?
Are State Negotiations for Salary Schedules for Teachers Desirable?
As one result of increased teacher militancy, the traditional decision making power in
education may be redistributed in some important respects. In what respects, if any, would
this be desirable? Why?
Under present conditions, teachers and other educational personnel in each school
district in all the states but Hawaii "bargain" or "negotiate" with the local school board for
increases in salaries and for other rights and benefits. An increase in one district may
contribute to pressures in other districts for similar increases, some of which probably
cannot be granted without changes in state laws or funding. Nyquist has concluded that "this
new militancy will eventually result in statewide negotiations rather than district-by-district
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activity." What would be the advantages and disadvantages of state-wide negotiations for
teachers and other employees? Should this procedure be utilized in other states? Why or
why not?
How Can Adequate Salaries for Noncertificated Personnel Be Assured?
Most of the attention in the laws and in the literature seems to have been given to the
problem of assuring adequate salary schedules and salaries for teachers and other members
of the instructional staff. In many cases, there is no legal requirement that salary schedules
be established for non-certificated personnel. Many believe that the relation between
salaries of teachers and those of other school employees should be governed by the laws of
supply and demand. Thus, if secretaries are in short supply, a school system should expect
to pay as much or more for a competent secretary as for a competent teacher. Others oppose
this point of view and insist that the nature of the work and the preparation required by
various kinds of employees should be the major factors in determining salary policy.
As a practical matter, most school systems will have to pay secretaries, custodians, and
other personnel roughly the "going" wage in the community for such personnel. Some are
required to do so by civil service provisions. If the salaries authorized are too low, the
schools cannot employ or retain competent people. Moreover, some of the employees in
many communities belong to unions, and there would be difficulties with the unions if salaries
were too low.
Since principals, teachers, and noncertificated employees must work in close
cooperation in many aspects of the school program, many believe that special steps should
be taken in every school system to assure that each group understands the basis for, and
supports the general idea behind, the salary schedules for other groups. For that reason,
provisions are made in many salary studies for representatives from noncertificated
employees to serve on teachers' salary schedule committees and for teachers to serve on
committees to study schedules for other groups.
What procedures should be used by a school system in developing a satisfactory salary
schedule for noncertificated employees? What are some of the factors to be considered?
Should the same policies and principles be used in adjusting these schedules as in adjusting
schedules for teachers?