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Egypt, Greece, India, China, etc.埃及、希臘、印度、中國等1. Treaties, immunities of ambassadors, law and useages of war1. 條約、外交豁免權、法律和戰爭發動2. Some practices had religious base; for example, to enslave and not kill prisoners of war2. 有些慣例是有其宗教背景的；例如可以奴役但不可以殺死戰俘

Ancient World and International Law古代社會與《國際法》

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Romans first divorced law from religion and Gaius spoke of jus gentium, “the law of nations”羅馬人首先把法律從宗教和 Gaius 所說的 jus gentium(「萬民法」 ) 中分離出來Roman law applied the law of nations to foreigners, when their own law was not appropriate當自身法律不適用於外國人的時候 , 羅馬法就使用「萬民法」Rome dominated Europe and middle east, so didn‘t need much international law羅馬控制歐洲和中東，所以不需要有很多國際法

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In the medieval times (5th to 14 centuries) were chaotic, so difficult for a code of international law to appear中世紀時代﹝五至十四世紀﹞政局混亂，難以產生國際法法典Europe‘s many small states all had to acknowledge rule of holy roman emperor and of pope許多歐洲小國都必須接受神聖羅馬帝國的皇帝和教皇的律令Feudalism prevented emergence of independent states; kings shared power with lords封建制度阻礙了獨立國家的出現；皇帝與地主貴族分享權力Trade, communications, transport primitive貿易、通訊、交通仍很原始

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From 16th c., Europeans reduced rest of world to colonies and imposed on notion of law自十六世紀，歐洲人把世界其他地方變成殖民地，並引入法律觀念Europeans treated few independent states as part of world system only if they were “civilized”歐洲人祗承認少數「文明」的國家是獨立的國家 , 是世界體系的一部分Customs of involving states outside Europe destroyed涉及歐洲以外國家的慣例被破壞了Example: China‘s international system revolved around emperor as ruler of civilized world例如：中國的國際體系是以皇帝為文明世界的統治者

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Peoples joined Chinese system if conquered or by sending tribute被徵服或進貢的人們便加入中國的體系Other state might become suzerainity (dominated state) of China (the suzerain)其他國家便可能成為中國﹝宗主國﹞的附庸國﹝被控制的國家﹞

China would run foreign affairs of suzerainity中國將會處理附庸國的外交事務Other state might become protectorate, with China (the protector) guaranteeing other state in event of attack其他國家可能成為被保護國，中國﹝保護國﹞保證其遇襲時提供保護

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Since China had some of same conditions as medieval Europe, little systematic elaboration of international law因為中國的情況跟中世紀歐洲有些相似，很少系統地發展國際法Imperial system eroded after 1842; by 1880s China began to turn to European system of international law一八四二年後帝國體系瓦解；一八八零年代中國開始屈就於歐洲的《國際法》系統After 1949, CCP adopted soviet state-centered system一九四九年以後，中國共產黨採納了蘇維埃國家中心系統Some Marxist-Leninist elements, but mostly European system有些馬克思主義─列寧主義的因素，但是主要仍是歐洲系統

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Only one international law system; sovereignty emphasized祗有一個國際法系統 ; 強調主權Until recently, China held that only states enjoy rights under international law; now recognizes human rights直至最近，中國還認為在《國際法》之下祗有國家才享有權利；現在才承認了人權Former colonies also adopted European-originated international law system前殖民地也採納了源自歐洲的《國際法》系統Non-European states also try to alter system, for example, by using UN as world parliament非歐洲國家亦嘗試改變系統，例如將聯合國作為世界議會

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Nation-states formed in Europe from 16th c., England, France, Spain自十六世紀，民族國家紛紛在歐洲成立，包括英國、法國、西班牙Protestant states broke from Holy Roman Empire新教國家從神聖羅馬帝國分離出來Writers looked to ancient practices, canon law, for a code relations between states立法者參考古代慣例、教會法規來製訂國與國之間的關係法則

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Secular theories about new sovereign states promoted by以下的學者宣揚有關新主權國的現世主義理論：Machiavelli (1469-1572)Rodin (1530-1596)Hobbes (1588-1679)

Prominent jurists began to systematize law著名法學家開始使法律系統化Vittoria, Ayala, Suarex, Belli, Gentilis, Brunus

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Scholars focused on law of war because many wars and standing armies emerged學者專注戰爭法律，因為戰爭頻繁而且出現了駐軍Greatest scholar was Hugo Grotius (1583-1645), but built his writings on works of others, e.g. Vitoria Hugo Grotius 1583-1645﹝ ﹞ 是最偉大的學者，但他的著作是建基於前人的作品，例如 Vitoria

Vitoria first to assert that international law had universal character Vitoria 最先主張《國際法》要有共通特點的Grotius adopted this idea and also wrote De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625) ("of war and peace") Grotius 接受了這套思想，並寫了 De Jure Belli ac Pacis 1625 "of war and ﹝ ﹞﹝peace"﹞

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Based his writing on theory of natural law:他的著作是建基於自然法的理論：Law derived not from human choice, but from principles of justice which are universally valid and eternal and can be discovered by pure reason法律不是人類選擇的結果，而是來源於正義的原則 ,這些原則是普遍有效而永恆的，而且能夠從純粹的推理中被發現Natural law originally thought to be divine最初人們認為自然法是神賜的Grotius wrote that it would exist even if there were no god Grotius 認為即使沒有上帝，自然法仍然會存在的

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Nature dictates law to human reason. Law is autonomatic result of humans living in society自然將法律授於人的理性。法律是人類生活於社會的自然結果Internationally, law exists apart from custom and treaties在國際上，除了慣例和條約 , 還存在法律For example, it dictates: 例如，據稱：distinction between just and unjust wars正義和不正義的戰爭是不同的rights of neutrality中立權need for conferences between rulers統治者之間需要會議

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Natural law faded in 19th c., but contributed to growth of human rights theory in 20th c.自然法衰落於十九世紀，但促進了二十世紀人權理論的發展was used to punish war criminals應用於懲罰戰犯provides moral and ethical basis for law為法律提供道德和倫理基礎Grotius also wrote Mare Liberum (“freedom of the seas”) Grotius 還寫了 Mare Liberum ”﹝ 海洋的自由”﹞

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Natural law school influential in 16th, 17th c. Because Europe in chaos自然法學派在十六、十七世紀是有影響力的，因為歐洲正陷於混亂狀態Served as check against depredations of religious wars用以反思宗教戰爭造成的破壞Treaty of Westphalia ended religious wars and religious freedom supposed to begin西發里亞條約終結了宗教戰爭，從此有了宗教自由Treaty result of conference, which recognized principle of pacta sunt servanda (“treaties are to be observed”).條約是會談的成果，並確認了「條約應當被遵守」的原則

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Machinery for settling future disputes between signatories of treaty處理條約簽署國之間將來糾紛的機制Positivist School﹝實證主義法學派﹞Began in second half of 17th century於十七後半世紀開始 Leading positivists: Pufendorf, Zouche, Bynkoershoek主要的實證主義法學家：Pufendorf 、 Zouche, Bynkoershoek

Challenged natural law theory as vague自然法理論被批評含糊不清

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Criticized natural law theory as promoting idea that judge need not enforce unjust laws自然法理論被批評是在宣揚一種觀念 , 即法官不需執行不正義的法律Believed law not discovered, but is man-made相信法律不是被發現的，而是人為的Justice and law two disctinct concepts正義和法律是兩個不同的概念Principles of law need not be universal, but can vary from time to time, place to place法律的原則不一定是普遍的，可以隨時間和地方而改變

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Rules of international law mainly in treaties and customs國際法的規則主要是在於條約和慣例中Vattel tried to combine naturalism and positivism:Vattel 嘗試將自然法學派和實證主義法學派結合1. Argued states derive rights from natural law1. 認為國家權利來自於自然法2. Rulers not accountable, unless they agree to duties through positive law 2. 統治者們是沒有責任的 , 除非他們通過實證主義法律認可其義務

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Positivism reached high-point in 19th century實證主義在十九世紀達到高峰Hegel held:Hegel 認為：1. State has will of its own1. 國家自身有其意志2. I.L. Emerges only if state restricts itself2. 祗有國家限制自己，國際法才會出現

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Austin held: Austin 認為：1. Only rules from sovereign are law; everything else is just morality1. 祗有源於主權的規則才會是法律；其他的都只是道德2. Since there is no international sovereign, I.L does not exist2. 由於沒有國際主權，所以國際法就不存在

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Austin later criticized: Austin稍後被批：1. States treat I.L. as more than morality even where they don‘t agree with it1. 與道德相比 , 國家更加重視國際法 即使有意見分歧 . 2. Morality can become I.L.:2. 道德可以變成《國際法》：Example: comity, courtesy of one state to another例如：一國對另一國的禮節

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Leading 20th century positivist Anzilotti held:二十世紀的實證主義領袖認為 Anzilotti認為：1. I.L. is based on pacta sunt servanda principle1. 國際法建基於「條約應當被遵守」的原則2. Customs involve implied consent by states to this rule2. 慣例中隱含著國家對這些規則的認同

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Positivism did show that only rules which states do observe can be rules of I.L.實證主義表明祗有那些國家遵守的規則才能成為國際法的規則I.L. expanded under positivist influence國際法在實證主義的影響下發展Jeremy Bentham coined phrase “international law‘Jeremy Bentham創造了「國際法」一詞Nation-states consolidated in Europe民族國家在歐洲得以鞏固

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Imperialist expansion帝國主帝的擴張Modernization of communications, transport and warfare通訊、交通和戰爭的現代化Law of war and neutrality developed關於戰爭和中立的法律發展起來First decisions by international tributnals of arbitration國際仲裁法庭的首次決定

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Alabama claims award case (1872)Alabama 的判例 (1872)

Large number of treaties signed大量的條約被簽署At beginning of 20th c. Permanent court of arbitration and permanent court of international justice set up在二十世紀初，設立了常設仲裁法院和常設國際法院In 1946, international court of justice (world court) set up一九四六年國際法院﹝世界法院﹞成立

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Permanent international organizations (i.O.s) founded常設國際組織成立1. League of Nations after WWI1. 第一次世界大戰後的國際聯盟 a. Had a few accomplishments in protecting minoritiesa. 在保護少數族群方面取得了一些成果 b. Did nothing to stop aggression b. 在阻止侵犯方面沒有任何進展

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2. Other I.O.s include2. 其他國際組織包括 a. International labour organizationa. 國際勞工組織 b. International civil aviation organizationb. 國際航空組織 c. Food and agricultural organizationc.食物與農產品組織

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3. United Nations established in 19453. 聯合國於一九四五成立 I.L. Now very broad, with multi-lateral treaties on all subjects國際法的範圍很廣，在各方面的都有多邊條約Treaties sometimes adopt rules from customs and court decisions and sometimes reject them條約有時候會採納來自慣例的規則和法院裁決，而有時候則會將之摒棄Natural law has generally not returned in 20th c., but some principles, like right of self-determination taken from natural law自然法沒有在二十世紀復興，但是其中的一些原則，比如自決權依然被援用

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To keep up with rapid change, multi-lateral treaties now serve a ‘law-making’ function為了追緊急劇轉變，多邊條約現在發揮著「立法」的功能Rapid codification of I.L. needed快捷的國際法編纂是有必要的Much done by I.L. Commission of UN since 1947自一九四七年，聯合國國際法委員會做了很多事I.L. no longer concerned mainly with war and peace國際法不再祗關注戰爭和和平

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On everyday level, many other questions. Examples:在每日的生活中，有很多其他問題 . 例如： 1. Injuries to citizens abroad1. 國民在海外受傷2. Dealing with aliens2. 外國人事務處理3. Extradition for crimes3. 罪犯引渡4. Questions of nationality4. 國籍問題5. Interpretation of treaties5. 條約的解釋