Chapter 3 · 2014. 1. 7. · Chapter 3 진정세균과고 ... nutrients, away from harmful...

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Chapter 3 진정세균과 고세균 (Bacteria and Archaea)

Transcript of Chapter 3 · 2014. 1. 7. · Chapter 3 진정세균과고 ... nutrients, away from harmful...

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Chapter 3

진정세균과 고세균(Bacteria and Archaea)

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원핵세포 (Prokaryotes )

• Prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in size and simplicity– Most lack internal membrane systems

• Prokaryotes are divided into two taxa– 진정세균 (bacteria) and 고세균 (archaea)

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Shape and Arrangement

• 구균 (Cocci, coccus) – spheres– 쌍구균 (Diplococci, pairs)– 연쇄상 구균 (Streptococci, chains)– 포도상 구균 (Staphylococci, grape‐like clusters)– 사분체 (Tetrads, 4 cocci in a square)

• 간균 (Bacilli, bacillus) – rods

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세포막 (Plasma Membrane)

• Absolute requirement for all living organisms

• Encompasses the cytoplasm • Selectively permeable barrier• Interacts with external environment

– Receptors for detection of and response to chemicals in surroundings

– Transport systems– Metabolic processes 

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Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure

• Lipid bilayers with floating proteins– 표재성 단백질 (peripheral protein)– 내재성 단백질 (integral protein)

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Asymmetry of Most Membrane Lipids

양친매성 지질(Amphipathic lipids) • Polar ends • hydrophilic – interact with water

• Non‐polar tails • hydrophobic – insoluble in water 

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세포벽 (Bacterial Cell Wall)

• Peptidoglycan (Peptide + Sugar)–Rigid structure that lies just outside the cell membrane

– Two types based on Gram stain• Gram positive – stain purple; thick peptidoglycan• Gram negative – stain pink; thin peptidoglycan and outer membrane

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Peptidoglycan Structure 

• Meshlike polymer of identical subunits forming long strands

• Two alternating sugars– N‐acetylglucosamine (NAG) – N‐ acetylmuramic acid (NAM)

• Alternating D‐ and L‐ amino acids

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Peptidoglycan Structure 

• Helical shape• Crosslinked by peptides for strength• This cross linking step is inhibited by penicillin

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Cell Wall Functions• Maintains shape of the bacteriu

• Helps protect cell from osmotic lysis

• Helps protect from toxic materials

• May contribute to pathogenicity

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Mechanism of Gram Stain Reaction

• Gram stain reaction due to nature of cell wall

• Shrinkage of the pores of peptidoglycan layer of gram‐positive cells

• Thinner peptidoglycan layer and larger pores of gram‐negative bacteria does not prevent loss of crystal violet

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Osmotic Protection by Cell WallAntibacterial Mechanism of Penicillin

Lysis Plasmolysis

저장액 고장액등장액

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Ribosomes• Consisting of protein and RNA

• Svedburg unit, sedimentation coefficient

• Total (70S) = small subunit (30S)+ large subunit (50S)

• RNA– 16S in small subunit– 23S and 5S in large subunit

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Plasmids• Extrachromosomal DNA • Small, closed circular DNA molecules• Exist and replicate independently of chromosome

• Episomes • May integrate into chromosome• Confer selective advantage to host (e.g., drug resistance)

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Motility• Chemotaxis (주화성)• Chemoreceptor (화학수용체)• Move toward chemical attractants such as nutrients, away from harmful substances

• Move in response to temperature, light, oxygen, osmotic pressure, and gravity

• Fimbriae (핌브리아), pili (선모)• Flagella (편모)

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Chapter 4

진핵세포의 구조와 기능(Eukaryotic Cell

Structure and Function)

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Common Features of Eukaryotic Cells

• Membrane‐delimited nuclei• Membrane‐bound organelles that perform specific functions

• Intra‐cytoplasmic membrane complex serves as transport system

• More structurally complex and generally larger than bacterial or archaeal cells

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세포골격 (Cytoskeleton)• Vast network of interconnected filaments within the cytoplasmic matrix 

• 미세섬유 (microfilaments, actin) • 미세소관 (microtubules)• 중간섬유 (intermediate filaments)

• Plays role in both cell shape and cell movement

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Secretory Endocytic Pathway • Intricate complex of membranous organelles and vesicles that move materials into the cell from outside, from inside to outside, and within the cell

• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)• Golgi apparatus• Lysosomes

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Irregular network of branching and fusing membranous tubules and flattened sacs

• Rough ER

• Smooth ER

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)• Rough ER

– Ribosomes attached– Synthesis of secreted proteins by ER‐associated ribosomes

• Smooth ER– Devoid of ribosomes– Synthesis of lipids by ER‐associated enzymes

• Transports proteins, lipids, and other materials within cell

• Major site of cell membrane synthesis

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Golgi Apparatus

• Membranous organelle made of cisternae stacked on each other

• Cis and trans faces• Involved in modification, packaging, and secretion of materials

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Lysosomes

• Membrane‐bound vesicles found in most eukaryotes

• Involved in intracellular digestion • Hydrolases• Function best under slightly acidic conditions

• Maintain an acidic environment by pumping protons into their interior

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세포내 흡입 (Endocytosis)

• All eukaryotic cells• Used to bring materials into the cell

• Solutes or particles taken up and enclosed in vesicles pinched from plasma membrane

• In most cases materials are then delivered to lysosome and destroyed 

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Types of Endocytosis• Phagocytosis

– Use of cell surface protrusions to surround and engulf particles

– Fuse with lysosomes and resulting vesicles called phagosomes

• Pinocytosis– Uptake of liquid materials

• Clathrin‐dependent endocytosis• Caveolin‐dependent endocytosis

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Clathrin‐dependent endocytosis

• Entry of LDL (low density lipoprotein)• Involves membrane regions coated on cytoplasmic side with the protein clathrin (coated pits)

• Coated pits have external receptors that specifically bind macromolecules

• Pinching off of coated pits forms coated vesicles

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자가소화 (autophage)

• 대자가소화 (macroautophage)

• 자가파고솜 (autophagosome)

• 라이소솜과 융합

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Nucleus 

• Membrane‐bound spherical structure that houses genetic material of eukaryotic cell

• Nucleolus for ribosome synthesis

• Nuclear pore for material transport

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Chromatin, nucleosome  and chromosome

• Chromatin– Dense fibrous material – Complex of DNA, histones, and other proteins– Five types of histones form nucleosomes– H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4

• Nucleosomes• Chromosomes 

– Condensation of chromatin during cell division

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Eukaryotic Ribosomes 

• Larger than the 70S bacterial and archaeal ribosomes

• Total (80S) = large SU (60S) + small SU (40S) 

• Attached to ER or free in cytoplasmic matrix

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Mitochondria

• The power houses of the cell• Site of tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle activity• ATP is generated by electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation

• Have own ribosomes and mitochodrial DNA

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Chloroplast (엽록체)

• Site of photosynthetic reactions• Thylakoids ‐ site of light reactions (trapping of light energy to generate ATP, NADPH, and oxygen)

• Stroma ‐ site of dark reactions (formation of carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide)

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Chapter 5

바이러스와 비세포성 감염인자(Viruses and Other Acellular 

Infectious Agents)

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Importance of Viruses

• Major cause of disease

• Important as a new source of therapy

• Important in evolution– Transfer genes between bacteria, others

• Important model systems in molecular biology

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General Properties of Viruses• Virion

• Complete virus particle

• Consists of 1 molecule of DNA or RNA enclosed in coat of protein

• Cannot reproduce independent of living cells nor carry out cell division

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Virions Infect All Cell Types

• (Bacterio)Phage ‐ Bacterial viruses 

• Most are eukaryotic viruses

• Classified into families based on–Genome structure, life cycle, morphology, and genetic relatedness

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Structure of Viruses• Virion size 

– 10–400 nm in diameter

• Nucleo‐capsid – Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) + protein coat (capsid)

• Envelopes (외피)– Presence of membrane– Enveloped viruses– Non‐enveloped viruses

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Capsids• Large macromolecular structures which serve as protein coat of virus

• Protect viral genetic material and aids in its transfer between host cells

• Made of protein subunits called protomers

• Helical, icosahedral (정이십면체), or complex

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Helical and icosahedral Capsids

HelicalTabacco mosaic virus

IcosahedralMost of viruses

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외피 (Viral Envelopes)

• An outer, flexible, membranous layer• Arise from host cell plasma or nuclear membranes

• Envelope proteins, which are viral encoded, may project from the envelope surface as spikes– Involved in viral attachment to host cell– Used for identification of virus

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Viral Genome 

• Diverse nature of genomes 

• Single or double stranded DNA or RNA

• The size of the nucleic acid also varies from virus to virus

• Segmented or circular

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Attachment, Entry, and Uncoating

• Specific receptor attachment• Receptor determines host preference

– Specific tissue (tropism)

• Enveloped virus– Fusing with plasma membrane– Endocytosis

• Non‐enveloped virus– Endocytosis

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Synthesis of Viral Protein and Genome

• Genome dictates the events– DNA viruses replicate DNA genome– RNA viruses replicate RNA genome

• Early or late viral proteins

• Structural or nonstructural viral proteins

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Virion Release

• Non‐enveloped viruses lyse the host cell• Enveloped viruses use budding

• Viral proteins are first incorporated into host membrane

• Nucleocapsid binds to viral proteins• Envelop derived from host cell membrane

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Quantification of Virus• Direct counting – count viral particles

• Indirect counting by an observable of the virus 

• Plaque assays– Dilutions of virus preparation made and plated on lawn of host cells

– Number of plaques counted– Results expressed as plaque‐forming units (PFU) – PFU/ml = number of plaques/sample dilution

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Prions – Proteinaceous Infectious Particle

• Cause variety of degenerative diseases in humans and animals

• Scrapie in sheep• Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or mad cow disease

• Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease (CJD) and variant CJD (vCJD)

• Kuru