c Bo 9781139025966 a 007

7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007

httpslidepdfcomreaderfullc-bo-9781139025966-a-007 129

ambridge Histories Online

httpuniversitypublishingonlineorgcambridgehistories

The Cambridge History of Musical Performance

Edited by Colin Lawson Robin Stowell

Book DOI httpdxdoiorg101017CHOL9780521896115

Online ISBN 9781139025966

Hardback ISBN 9780521896115

Chapter

2 - Political process social structure and musical performance in Eur

ope since 1450 pp 35-62

Chapter DOI httpdxdoiorg101017CHOL9780521896115003

Cambridge University Press

7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


2

Political process social structure andmusical performance in Europe since 1450

W IL L I A M WE B ER

I will examine the history of musical performance by in political terms seeinghowaculturalcommunityisshapedbydiff ering groups and forces Performinginvolves interaction among people involved in organising paying listening

and interpreting Their relationships may vary at any time from close collabo-ration to intense con1047298ict Diff erent kinds of communities interact in thispolitical process variously the performing institution a court or a city andthe state or a region of states Negotiation must go on among participantsaccording to organisational rules musical practices and 1047297nancial constraintsTradition and change compete with each other under pressure from socialmovements and individual opportunism While these factors are usually just taken for granted crises often make them articulated in print

An effi

cient way to enquire into these social and political processes is toexamine dualities which have recurred in Western musical life since the lateMiddle Ages Involving collaboration and con1047298ict to varying extents the dual-ities within performing relationships can help us go beyond the banal phraselsquoMusic and Society rsquo by identifying the dynamics aspects of musical culture The1047297rst section of this chapter brie1047298y examines musical dualities under threeheadings ndash Location Production and Taste The second section discusseshow the dualities generally played out during four periods of music history since around 1450 Scholars typically agree that a public musical world

emerged by around 1450 in Western and Central Europe and we can seelines of continuity from that time to the present1 It is indeed enlighteningto see how the origins of modern practices can reach back so far Even thoughthe dualities aff ecting musical life changed in nature from one period toanother they largely retained certain basic roles throughout our period

(A) LocationCourt and city Nobles and bourgeois

Cosmopolitan versus local or national

1 R Strohm The Rise of European Music (1380ndash1500) Cambridge University Press 1993

[35]

Cambridge Histories Online copy Cambridge University Press 2012

Downloaded from Cambridge Histories Online by IP 1469525317 on Sun Sep 20 190705 BST 2015httpdxdoiorg101017CHOL9780521896115003


7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


(B) Production Amateurs and professionalsEntrepreneurship versus association

Vocal and instrumental music

Virtuoso versus ensemble(C) Taste

Old and new musicPerformer and composer Diff erent modes of listening

Location

Location is the basis of the 1047297rst three related dualities in musical life A dialecticbetween the court and the city lasted to the end of the nineteenth centuryinvolving competition among noble and bourgeois and tension between thecosmopolitan the national and the local which continues to this day

Much of modern music history has been wrapped up in the dialectic betweenthe court and the city On the one hand the royal or aristocratic patron exertedpersonal leadership in idiosyncratic ways to shape musical activities in a court

Although court patronage could bring vital musical leadership for a period of

time the shift from one generation to another could have disorienting conse-quences for the musical community On the other hand the highly institutional-ised nature of governance in a city could generate regular musical activity over succeeding generations2 The funding available for musical activity was none theless often more limited in a city than in a court especially for instrumentalensembles The Italian cities of the early modern period most strikingly illustratethis contrast as the diff erences between the extraordinary continuity in Veniceand the discontinuities in courts such as Ferrara or Florence3

Yet because a court was often based in a city a court and the city rsquos govern-

ment worked closely together as can be seen in the evolution of opera housesin the early modern period In Italian cities opera was based on diff erent kindsof institutions ndash a major court in Naples a small one in Parma and patricianleadership in Venice During the eighteenth century when the court wasusually located a moderate distance from the capital city the urban theatrethen rivalled the one at the court Whereas Louis XIV and English monarchs

2 Richard Leppert illustrates Flemish musical life in The Theme of Music in Flemish Paintings of the SeventeenthCentury Munich Musikverlag Katzbichler 19773 I Fenlon lsquoMusic and Society rsquo in I Fenlon (ed) The Renaissance from the 1470s to the End of the 16thCentury London Macmillan 1989 E Selfridge-Field Song and Season Science Culture and Theatrical Time in Early Modern Venice Palo Alto CA Stanford University Press 2007

36 W I L L I A M W E B E R




7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


after 1688 took little leadership in opera Frederick II in Prussia and Joseph IIof the Habsburg Empire involved themselves considerably in such aff airsRulers in the smaller courts in this period developed signi1047297cant opera compa-nies as Daniel Heartz has shown in fascinating detail for Stuttgart and

Mannheim4

Courts continued to play important roles in musical life during the 1047297rst half of the nineteenth century despite the burgeoning of urban music publicsFranz Liszt shifted his career from the concert stage to the court of Saxe-Coburg-Meiningen in 1848 Louis Spohr one of the most important compos-ers in the 1047297rst half of the century was based in the court of Hesse-Kassel fromthe early 1830s until his death in 1859 While Liszt had considerable latitudefrom his patron Spohr was burdened by traditional restrictions as to residence

and repertoire Continuity can also be seen in opera houses Even thoughcontrol of them gradually shifted from courts to municipalities traditionalleadership remained strong as in Parma until Italian uni1047297cation began in 1859and in Dresden until the end of the century5

During the twentieth century a dualism between state and private funding ineff ect replaced that of court and city By the 1870s the value of public funding of concerts or opera was much debated in numerous countries The greatest publicsupport for music emerged in nineteenth-century German municipalities not

for the most part the Austrian Empire or individual German states Until 1945the least such funding existed in Britain Publicly funded radio provided a major new source of funding for classical music from the 1920s in Britain and almost allother countries The United States was the last major country where statefunding developed The steady public funding for opera and concerts inGermany led German emigrants to the United States to hold back from donatingto local institutions6 Music bene1047297ted considerably less than painting or sculp-ture from the National Endowment for the Arts begun in 19657

Nobles and bourgeois both collaborated and vied with one another on the

historical stage Nobility arose in the tenth century only a century earlier thandid the bourgeoisie Once feudal relationships established titled families withcontrol of land in the tenth century bankers and professionals emerged incities to manage the growing money economy To be sure because the

4 D Heartz Music in European Capitals The Galant Style 1720ndash1780 New York Norton 20035 J Toelle Oper als Geschaumlft Impresari an italienischen Opernhaumlusern 1860ndash1900 Kassel Baumlrenreiter 2007Philipp Ther In der Mitte der Gesellschaft Operntheater in Zentraleuropa 1815ndash1914 Vienna Oldenbourg20066 J Hecht-Gienow lsquoTrumpeting down the walls of Jericho the politics of art music and emotion inGermanndash American relations 1870ndash1920rsquo Journal of Social History 36 (2003) 585ndash613 and Sound Diplomacy Music and Emotions in Transatlantic Relations 1850ndash1920 University of Chicago Press 20097 D Binkiewitz Federalizing the Muse United States Arts Policy and the National Endowment for the Arts 1965ndash

1980 Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press 2004

Musical performance in Europe since 1450 37




7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


bourgeoisie did not control land ndash the principal source of wealth ndash it appearedsecondary to the nobility and therefore seemed to lsquorisersquo in subsequent periodsBut its source of capital and cash was vital to the nobility some of whombecame involved with business leaders in many regions of Europe as of the

seventeenth century One could 1047297nd numerous nobles in southern Englandand northern France who took mortgages on their lands to develop mines andsmall arms factories8

Nobles and bourgeois likewise collaborated extensively in musical lifeserving as patrons commentators and organisers of opera or concert institu-tions Although much was written condemning the musical education of boysin eighteenth-century England Horace Walpole served as a talent scout for the Kingrsquos Theatre and John Montagu Earl of Sandwich was the principal

founder of the Catch Club and the Concert of Antient Music9

The operacompanies in Venice London and Prague were led in large part by men of thetwo classes The original chamber-music concerts in the 1047297rst half of thenineteenth century owed their existence to support variously from highnobles bankers socially prominent intellectuals and music teachers Thecollaboration of people from diff erent social strata was crucial to these con-certs which were unprecedented for involving no pieces for voice Concert societies of the twentieth century likewise 1047298ourished only if their managers

worked hard to maintain support from wealthy patrons and a large payingpublicThe dialectic between cosmopolitan and local or national music has been

closely related with the dualities of court and city and noble and bourgeois10

As applied here the term lsquocosmopolitanrsquo indicates the authority carried by agenre ndash Italian opera most of all ndash that dominated repertoires and taste over awide geographical region No single country or region could exist on its owninvolvement internationally was basic to musical culture whether in collabo-rative or competitive terms As Reinhard Strohm has shown the dissemination

of music across geographical boundaries was closely linked with diplomaticactivity in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance11 A sovereign often took his or her leading musicians to other courts while negotiating for marriage war or commerce and numerous high-level musicians thereby served as secretaries

8 H M Scott (ed) European Nobilities in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 2 vols HarlowLongman 19959 R Leppert Music and Image Domesticity Ideology and Socio-cultural Formation in Eighteenth-Century

England Cambridge University Press 198810 For discussion of national styles see C Lawson and R Stowell The Historical Performance of Music An Introduction Cambridge University Press 1999 pp 42ndash7 81 17911 R Strohm lsquoEuropean politics and the distribution of music in the early 1047297fteenth century rsquo Early Music History 1 (1981) 305ndash23





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


or emissaries George Frideric Handelrsquos 1047297rst visit to London occurred in 1708chie1047298y because his patron King George of Hanover wanted to hear about thecrisis-bound situation of English politics at the time

Cosmopolitan authority was vested in particular genres in musical culture12

By 1700 opera originating in various Italian cities had become established asthe principal repertoire in almost all courts and cities Though still holding anItalian identity operatic works became the cosmopolitan standard throughout Europe being applied by locally born composers in their local communitiesM-P-G Chabanon might have been speaking for Italian opera when in 1785he declared that lsquoin their free circulation the arts lose all of their indigenouscharacter [i]n this regard Europe can be thought to be a mother country of which all the arts are citizensrsquo13 Yet at the same time genres rooted in a given

region often rivalled cosmopolitan genres The politics of musical life revolvedaround competition between local and cosmopolitan opera and the struggle of local composers to be recognised within the international community Operain the vernacular ndash called opeacutera comique Singspiel or English opera ndash thereby challenged cosmopolitan Italian opera Not only did intellectuals challenge thehegemony of cosmopolitan opera so did many members of the elites who oftenattended opera performances Moreover the concertos and symphonies by central European composers ndash not just Germans ndash acquired a similar if less

powerful such role in the late eighteenth century Less hierarchy amongregions developed in performance of the highly international concerto aswas also usually the case with sacred music prior to the rise of classicalrepertoires during the early nineteenth century

The nature of cosmopolitan music changed fundamentally in the middle of the nineteenth century The hegemony of Italian opera waned as the Parisiantheatres acquired greater international prominence and proponents of Germanopera mounted a pointed ideological campaign now taking Mozart into their company more fully than had been the case earlier A crisis in Italian opera was

even more evident in 1868 when the recently uni1047297ed but deeply problematicItalian state ended all subsidies for opera from the nation or its provincesFurthermore by 1850 repertoires of classical music performed by orchestrasand string quartets had become central to cosmopolitan culture rivalling operavigorously Even though it was conventional to refer to classical music asGerman in origin (despite the presence of Italians and others from Central

12 See further discussion in W Weber The Great Transformation of Musical Taste Concert Programming from Haydn to Brahms Cambridge University Press 2008 and lsquoCosmopolitan National and Regional Identitiesin Eighteenth-century European Musical Lifersquo in J Fulcher (ed) Oxford Handbook to the New Cultural History of Music Oxford University Press 201113 Quoted in M Noiray Vocabulaire de la musique de l rsquo eacutepoque classique Paris Minerve 2005 p 119





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


Europe) it was expected that every orchestra would perform some of theclassical repertoire for orchestra or quartet The primacy of cosmopolitanclassical repertoire in concert life by 1850 stimulated composers to de1047297netheir music in nationalistic terms14

Production

The production and performance of music entailed three related dualities con-cerning relations between amateur and professional musicians the entrepreneur and the association and practices of performing vocal and instrumental music

Both the amateur and the professional musician can be considered to have hadcareers Amateurs followed extensive and in some cases signi1047297cant careers in

many periods even though the term lsquopatronrsquo may be more appropriate for

amateurs in some contexts There was a long tradition of a patron performingalongside a high-ranking professional musician in private Isabella drsquoEste wife of the Marchese Francesco Gonzaga in the late 1400s was a distinguished singer aswas Empress Therese of the house of Habsburg between 1792 and 180715

British gentlemen sang with leading musicians of the Chapel Royal at thegatherings of the Noblemenrsquos Catch Club (1760)16 In the early nineteenthcentury amateur string players performed in private with musicians who were

putting on public concerts of chamber music This tradition still survivesfor example during the 1980s and 1990s Edward Edelman elected Supervisor of Los Angeles County (which has authority over the Music Center and theHollywood Bowl) often played with members of the Los Angeles Philharmonicin his home

During the eighteenth century the growing prominence of public concertscreated tensions between amateurs and professionals in some contexts Musicsocieties in Britain often experienced this problem There was great protest against bringing London singers to perform in an oratorio concert in Halifax in

1767 and the Edinburgh Musical Society all but collapsed in 1798 as a result of dispute of the same kind17 The Society of the Friends of Music in Viennaworked out an interesting compromise over the question of amateur perform-ance during the 1047297rst three decades after its founding in 1814 Professionals

14 See Toelle Oper als Geschaumlft and Ther In der Mitte der Gesellschaft 15 W Priser lsquoLucrezia Borgia and Isabella drsquoEste as patrons of music the frottola at Mantua and Ferrararsquo Journal of the American Musicological Society 38 (1985) 1ndash33 J Rice Empress Marie Therese and Music at theViennese Court 1792ndash1807 Cambridge University Press 200316 B Robins Catch and Glee Culture in Eighteenth-Century England Woodbridge Boydell Press 200617 A Plain and True Narrative of the Di ff erences between Messrs BndashS and Members of the Musical Club holden at the Old-Cock Halifax In a Letter to a Friend Halifax 1767 D Johnson Music and Society in Lowland Scotland inthe Eighteenth Century Oxford University Press 1972





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


could not appear in its orchestral series (the Society Concerts) but they didperform opera selections and virtuoso pieces at the smaller-scale EveningEntertainments The lsquoidealistsrsquo in the society unhappy about its repertoireand performing standards created a semi-professional orchestral series called

the Concert Spirituel (1819ndash48) where the 1047297rst systematic classical repertoireappeared in Europe as a whole The Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra foundedin 1842 involved only members of the opera orchestra but failed to present more than a few concerts a year until 1860 The Revolution of 1848 had theeff ect of dividing fundamentally amateur from professional concerts18

Concerts by amateur choral societies were often performed with professio-nal soloists and orchestral players by the middle of the nineteenth century TheEnglish oratorio festivals originally involved professional singers either from

cathedral choirs or theatre choruses But by the 1840s choruses made up of amateurs had become common most prominently in Londonrsquos SacredHarmonic Society many of whose members came from the lower middleclass The new-found ability to train large numbers of amateurs to sing withsome success in performances of choral-orchestral pieces expanded the resour-ces of music-making greatly for the rest of the century Professional singersseem sometimes to have helped lead the sections of otherwise amateur cho-ruses Choruses of varying size social status and musical ability sprang up all

over Europe and America making Handelrsquo

s best-known oratorios as widely performed as the operas of Gioachino Rossini Gaetano Donizetti andGiuseppe Verdi The British choral festivals nevertheless went into seriousdecline towards the end of the nineteenth century The impresarios found it increasingly hard to please the public and get it to accept new works19 Choralgroups took a particular path in the United States where college glee clubskept active the English catch and glee tradition with its special blend of sociability through the twentieth century

The division between amateur and professional musicians became increas-

ingly distinct during the twentieth century in orchestras and choruses alike A new kind of interaction between amateurs and professionals nonetheless arosein rock music Since the 1960s young people have been building rock bands inlocal communities with the ambition of becoming high-level professionalsmotivated by the success of such stars as the Beatles or the Rolling StonesMoreover areas of popular music began to develop their own pedagogy

18 Weber Great Transformation of Musical Taste pp 197 ndash207 255ndash819 G Cumberland lsquoMusical Problems IV Musical Festivalsrsquo Musical Opinion and Trade Review 398(November 1910) 90ndash1 H Antcliff e lsquoMusical festivals and modern worksrsquo Musical Opinion and Trade Review 391 (1 April 1910) 483 See also R Demaine lsquoIndividual and institution in the musical life of Leeds1900ndash1914 rsquo PhD thesis University of York (1999)





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


Whereas many singers and songwriters of the late nineteenth and early twen-tieth century were educated in conservatoires or with traditional music teach-ers musicians in rock country and folk music now are often trained withintheir own professions20

We can diff erentiate between two ways of producing music through entre-preneurship or association It is possible to produce music either as a personalspeculation for either pro1047297t or loss or through an association whose membersintend to pursue larger collective goals In present-day language entrepreneur-ism is usually de1047297ned as the attempt to expand capital resources throughcorporate organisation Yet prior to the late nineteenth century the term wasused to denote individuals who performed services with limited if any eco-nomic resources and included even those who bartered in a townrsquos market21

Entrepreneurism goes far back in musical culture for the travelling entertainer had to learn how to manipulate expenses and income in diff erent kinds of places Music publishing was highly entrepreneurial from the start James Haar pointed to the lsquoentrepreneurial urgersquo and the lsquoshrewd sense of self-promotionrsquo

in the career of Orlando di Lasso22 Though not a publisher as such Lassoserved as editor and business adviser for those who put his many volumes of music into print During the eighteenth century the growing size of themusical world in some major cities led an increasing number of musicians to

work on a freelance basis putting on subscription series giving lessons andsometimes even establishing music schools Promenade concerts 1047297nally werealmost always highly commercial enterprises from their creation by PhilippeMusard in 1832 until after the Second World War23 Aspirant rock groupslikewise function today in entrepreneurial fashion even though they have towork through corporate management agencies

To be sure a 1047297ne line exists between the two types of venture because anassociation might make money and a speculation can be driven in part by highprinciples Yet the moral implications seen in the pro1047297t motive have often led

to con1047298ict between entrepreneurial and associative goals As early as the 1770smusicians who published a lot of music for amateurs ndash Carl Philip EmanuelBach for example ndash came into considerable disrepute for being overly

20 For a picture of one such world see R Walser Running with the Devil Power Gender and Madness in Heavy Metal Music Hanover NH University Press of New England 199321 W Weber in W Weber (ed) The Musician as Entrepreneur and Opportunist 1700ndash1914 ManagersCharlatans and Idealists Bloomington Indiana University Press 2004 Introduction22 J Haar lsquoOrlando di Lasso composer and print entrepreneur rsquo in K van Orden (ed) Music and theCultures of Print New York Garland 2000 pp 129 131 126 See also P A Starr lsquoMusical entrepreneur-ship in 1047297fteenth-century Europersquo Early Music 32 (2004) 119ndash3323 A history of the enterprises sponsoring Musardrsquos concerts and a proposal for a mixture of dance musicand classical symphonies can be found in the Archives Nationales F 21 1157 lsquoConcerts Musard rue

Vivienne 1836ndash37 Concerts Vivienne Concerts de la salle Montesquieu 1833ndash36rsquo





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


commercial The word lsquocharlatanrsquo was often used to criticise a virtuoso or apromenade concert conductor whose ambitions were thereby contrasted withthe higher goals seen in the concerts presented by groups of professionalmusicians Joseph Joachim employed the term in January 1857 to accuse

Louis Jullien of performing classical works in showy fashion24 In the 1970swidely known experimental composers such as Philip Glass and George Crumbwere derided by university composers for pandering to the commercial aspectsof popular music

The musical association diff ered from entrepreneurial activity because it wascollective and often indeed egalitarian in nature A group of musicians wouldform a society to present concerts on a long-term basis The earliest suchorganisations borrowed the term lsquoacademy rsquo from Italian or French societies

that were devoted to intellectual dialogue rather than performance eventhough sociability among colleagues existed in both cases Thus the Academy of Ancient Music in London (1726ndash1802) brought together singers from theChapel Royal and the cathedrals with a few of their patrons to sing works of lsquoancient rsquo music that were as old as the late sixteenth century Almost all of theprofessional orchestras founded in the nineteenth century were likewise col-lective undertakings run by musicians most prominently the PhilharmonicSociety of London (1813) the Socieacuteteacute des Concerts in Paris (1828) the Vienna

Philharmonic Orchestra (1842) and the New York Philharmonic Society (1842) The subscription series held at the Gewandhaus in Leipzig howeverwas governed by a board of laymen as was often the case with Americanorchestras in the twentieth century

In the world of opera however blended forms of governance tended toarise because the court or the state was often involved in some fashion alongwith an entrepreneur At its founding in 1669 the Acadeacutemie Royale deMusique in Paris was directed by Pierre Perrin Jean-Baptiste Lully and asuccession of directeurs but received necessary 1047297nancial support from the

court25 Holding a monopoly over French opera the Opeacutera in 1725 thengave a privilegravege over all public concerts to the Concert Spirituel the city rsquoscentral series whose directeurs developed concerts at their own behest By contrast in London the Royal Academy of Music which acquired the privilegeof the Kingrsquos Theatre in 1720 was led by a collegial board of directors as well as

24 J Joachim ed and trans N Bickley as Letters from and to Joseph Joachim London Macmillan 1914p 141 Emphasis is original25 J de la Gorce Lrsquo Opeacutera agrave Paris au temps de Louis XIV Histoire d rsquo un theacuteacirctre Paris Eacuteditions Desjonquegraveres1992 V Johnson Backstage at the Revolution How the Royal Paris Opera Survived the End of the Old RegimeUniversity of Chicago Press 2008





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


an impresario Made up of leading nobles and gentlemen the board continuedto exercise authority until the early 1830s26

From the start Italian opera companies were controlled in diverse fashion by a court an impresario box-owning patrons or a combination of all three

From the early eighteenth century most Italian halls were governed by animpresario who obtained funding an association of boxholders that protectedtheir investments and often a monarch who served as patron In Venice theboxholders dominated in Milan and Naples the patrons and in other cities allthree interest groups27 In German cities municipalities provided funding for opera during the nineteenth century Yet close links between noble andbourgeois patrons underlay the functioning of the theatre in cities such asDresden28

The dualism between vocal music and instrumental music has been funda-mental to Western musical culture The two types of music needed and rivalledone another throughout this history Until the twentieth century it wasunusual for a court or public performance to involve just vocal or instrumentalpieces Even though string quartets were giving concerts with no vocal com-ponent in Vienna and Paris by 1815 singers continued to appear in some suchconcerts and the great majority of orchestral series included solo or choralpieces until the First World War This tradition re1047298ected a deep fascination

with virtuosity in its contrasting forms Voices and instruments had long beenthought to interact with one another in what Rodolfo Celletti called the lsquoloveduet rsquo inherent in the tradition of bel canto29 During the late 1780s for example listeners would 1047298ock to a concert to hear a rondo by DomenicoCimarosa followed by a violin concerto by Giovanni Viotti The long prevalent lsquomiscellaneousrsquo concert of opera selections and instrumental virtuoso piecesgave a coherent set of expectations and practices to the tradition

A programme of 1047297fteen opera selections and virtuoso pieces each half introduced by an overture may seem unappealing to listeners today but it

was among the most sought-out kinds of musical entertainment during theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries A musician who put on such a concert followed what amounted to a political process in choosing performing forcesgenres composers and pieces based on his or her sense of what the public

26 E Gibson The Royal Academy of Music 1719ndash1728 The Institution and its Directors New York Garland1989 J Hall-Witt Fashionable Acts Opera and Elite Culture in London 1780ndash1880 Durham NH University of New Hampshire Press 200727 J Rosselli The Opera Industry in Italy from Cimarosa to Verdi The Role of the Impresario CambridgeUniversity Press 198428 See Ther In der Mitte der Gesellschaft 29 R Celletti Storia del Bel Canto trans F Fuller as A History of Bel Canto Oxford University Press 1991p 3





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


expected in taste and in popular performers The blending of short vocal andinstrumental pieces lives on in our day in school concerts and recitals organisedby music teachers

Still performances in court or in private rooms might include only vocal or

instrumental pieces The need to accommodate a public did not apply as strictly to an aristocrat presenting music in a stately home as it did to a musicianperforming in public For example around 1800 the Habsburg Empress MarieTherese a singer in her own right presented several concerts a week made upalmost entirely of vocal pieces usually either opera buff a or opera seria30 Thepatrons of Beethovenrsquos chamber music likewise held private performancesdedicated strictly to quartets and related genres The English heir apparent gave a concert in Devonshire House in 1823 made up of ensemble numbers

from Rossinirsquos Il turco in Italia (1814) each half introduced by a sonata for

horns31

Philosophical indeed often ideological dispute developed over the aestheticdichotomy between vocal and instrumental music A critique of performingnumerous opera selections at concerts began as early as 1800 and by the 1860sa few orchestras (the Prussian Court Orchestra in Berlin most of all) off eredlittle vocal music Opera and classical-music concerts became increasingly distant from one another since the rationale for performing old operas evolved

on a commercial rather than an idealistic basis intellectually Such aestheticdispute has persisted among scholars today Music historians tend to disparagethe eighteenth-century principle that aesthetic meaning must arise from poeticcommunication leading to the argument that instrumental music becamelsquoemancipatedrsquo from that principle as the idea of lsquoabsolutersquo music arose in theearly nineteenth century32 Other scholars countered that commentators usedpoetic language to interpret Beethovenrsquos music and that vocal music remainedcentral to aesthetic thinking suggesting that lsquoabsolute musicrsquo appeared muchlater33

Distinctive types of homogeneous as opposed to miscellaneous programmesemerged in the nineteenth century The recital ndash that is performing entirely

30 J Rice Empress Marie Therese and Music at the Viennese Court 1792ndash1807 Cambridge University Press2003 pp 90ndash2 170ndash331 lsquoLondonrsquo Quarterly Music Magazine and Review 5 (1823) 25232 J Neubauer The Emancipation of Music from Language Departure from Mimesis in Eighteenth-century Aesthetics New Haven and London Yale University Press 1986 For a critique of this argument seeD A Thomas Music and the Origins of Language Theories from the French Enlightenment CambridgeUniversity Press 199533 R Wallace Beethovenrsquo s Critics Aesthetic Dilemmas and Resolutions during the Composer rsquo s LifetimeCambridge University Press 1986 M E Bond lsquoIdealism and the aesthetics of instrumental music at theturn of the nineteenth century rsquo Journal of the American Musicological Society 50 (1997) 387 ndash420 M E Bond Music as Thought Listening to the Symphony in the Age of Beethoven Princeton University Press 2006 Thomas Music and the Origins of Language





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


alone or just with an accompanist ndash did not develop until Franz Liszt experi-mented with it in the late 1830s Pianists such as Clara Schumann and MariePleyel followed suit and by the 1870s such programming was common in most cities Concerts by string quartets became more homogeneous as well While in

1850 their programmes almost always included several genres ndash atrioquintetor even octet ndash by 1900 a concert might off er just string quartets In 1907 a Londonviolinist put on a recital made up entirely of Nicolograve Paganinirsquos Caprices aprogramme that would have appealed to the virtuosorsquos fans in the 1830s34

Since the 1990s 1047297rst the Juilliard Quartet and then the Paci1047297ca Quartet haveplayed all six of Elliott Carter rsquos string quartets in two sittings

Devoting a concert to a single work ndash an oratorio or a symphony most commonly ndash was by de1047297nition foreign to traditional practice in musical life

Still performing a single work has come about when the genre has includedcontrasting solo choral and instrumental elements Unusually ambitious com-posers have made their careers in large part by framing choral-orchestral worksin that fashion Handel established the oratorio concert successfully because heknew how to write for his public and could control what went on in a Londontheatre Gustav Mahler likewise monopolised many programmes with his longsymphonies in a time when orchestral programmes included relatively few recent works He convinced orchestras to give a programme of this kind because

he was so much in demand as a conductor and because his symphonies blendedmusical forces and evocative topoi35

The relationship between the virtuoso and the ensemble is inherently a sourceof either collaboration or tension The self-promoting individual can either threaten other musicians or open up opportunities for them as an ensembleThe instrumental performers who toured courts and cities from the time of theMiddle Ages had to woo patrons and participate with local performers SusanMcClary has shown how Italian singers began touring as stars during the 1580sapplying something of the same tactics as instrumentalists36 A city rsquos musical

connoisseurs listeners deemed to be good judges helped facilitate negotiationsbetween local and touring musicians It was customary for such a person toinvite a visiting musician to perform in private before musicians learned listen-ers and potential patrons making it possible for the performer to make contactsfor teaching or performing and to organise a concert The leading such 1047297guresduring the late eighteenth century were J-F-K Baron von Alvensleben inLondon Gottfried Baron van Swieten in Vienna and Alexandre Le Riche dela Poupliniegravere in Paris In the late nineteenth century concert agents often

34 Extant copy of the programme in the Centre for Performance History Royal College of Music35 I am indebted to Paul Banks for this information and insight36 See forthcoming article lsquoSoprano as fetish professional singers in early modern Italy rsquo by Susan McClary





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


assumed this role Pianist Artur Schnabel wrote that the Viennese agent Albert Gutmann presented lsquoa star paradersquo of both performers and composers in hishome on Sunday afternoons37

A crisis without precedent arose in the relationship between virtuosos and

the rest of the musical profession between about 1820 and 1850 The very principle of virtuosity came into question in this period as idealistic commen-tators made a harsh critique of commercial exploitation targeting especially the fantaisie on themes from a well-known opera38 In 1843 a critic in the

Musical Examiner went so far as to demand that the Philharmonic Society of London forbid pianist Alexander Dreyshock from playing any of his own musicat its concerts39 By 1860 most performers had abandoned the opera fantaisie

and focused their programmes on classical works The relationship between

virtuoso and ensemble was re-established upon the classical repertoire becausemany concerts involved chamber works led by the star performer ClaraSchumann for example often opened a concert with a piano quartet or quintet Still most virtuosos did continue to perform their own works at least in genres for their instrument40

An expansion in notoriety parallel to that of Paganini and Liszt occurred in thecareers of Elvis Presley and the Beatles during the 1950s and 1960s In both epochsnew commercial frameworks were evolving which opened up wide new horizons

for musical stardom Yet rock music became established on a 1047297

rmer basis thaninstrumental virtuosity which had to share the stage with classics Rock starsquickly learned how to work with the large-scale commercial world evolving inrecording radio and commercial publicity The dichotomy between the star andthe ensemble was mediated by managers and by the growing popular music presswhich wielded great power over what individuals did musically or socially

Taste

A particularly strong dichotomy has existed in Western musical culturebetween old and new music A balanced relationship between the old and thenew usually existed in the worlds of painting and sculpture even whenacademic styles retained hegemony during the nineteenth century

37 A Schnabel My Life and Music ed E Crankshaw New York St Martinrsquos 1963 p 9 W Weber lsquoFromthe self-managing musician to the independent concert agent rsquo in Weber (ed) The Musician as Entrepreneur p 11938 D Gooley lsquoBattle against instrumental virtuosity in the early nineteenth century rsquo in C Gibbs andD Gooley (eds) Franz Liszt and his World Princeton University Press 2006 pp 75ndash11239 lsquoFair play to all partiesrsquo Musical Examiner 11 March 1843 133ndash440 K Hamilton After the Golden Age Romantic Pianism and Modern Performance Oxford University Press2008





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


Traditionally new music was thought inherently superior to the old JohannesTinctoris made an iconic statement along these lines in his treatise on counter-point in 1477 declaring that lsquothere does not exist a single piece of music not composed within the last forty years that is regarded by the learned as worth

hearingrsquo41 Major disputes occurred when a new style began to replace an oldone as happened around 1375 1600 1710 1800 and 1900

Canonic repertoires emerged in a few places before the nineteenth centurythough without holding hegemonic authority over musical life in generalDuring the late 1047297fteenth century a key musical canon developed in theSistine Chapel prior to 1500 providing the context where GiovanniPalestrinarsquos music was performed after his death in 159442 No comparablerepertoire has been found in Italian churches but his hymns were sung in the

Habsburg court chapel during the eighteenth century Secular canonic reper-toires began to arise at that time in the opera houses of Paris and Berlin and inthe concert life of London and other British cities Practices shifted fundamen-tally during the early nineteenth century as recent works became less and lesscommon in some ndash though by no means all ndash concert programmes Canonicrepertoires gradually evolved in opera houses after 1850 but a coherent aesthetic rationale for it did not evolve until at least 1900 Classical musicreached a peak in its hegemony in the 1950s when orchestras and chamber

groups played little else and popular music was another world save perhaps for the eff orts of Leonard Bernstein Interest in new music came alive under thein1047298uence of minimalism in the 1970s as groups such as the Kronos Quartet combined old new popular and classical works on the same programmes

The relationship between the performer and the composer changed in lesscategorical terms during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries To besure a great many church musicians of the 1600s and 1700s were expected toproduce anthems or psalm settings as a matter of course a professional expect-ation unusual today Moreover a virtuoso was by de1047297nition both composer

and performer until the time of Charles Halleacute or the later career of ClaraSchumann But some of the leading opera composers of the eighteenth cen-tury ndash such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Christoph Willibald Gluck ndash had somuch to do setting new texts that they had relatively little to do with conduct-ing in the pit or preparing singers for new productions Late nineteenth-century virtuosi such as Anton Rubinstein and Ignacy Paderewski continuedto compose for their own concerts From the 1920s the line between the

41 Quoted in H M Brown and L K Stein Music in the Renaissance 2nd edn Upper Saddle River NJPrentice Hall 1999 p 742 J Dean lsquoThe evolution of a canon at the Papal Chapelrsquo Papal Music and Musicians in Late Medieval and Renaissance Rome Oxford University Press 1998 pp 138ndash66





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


performer and the composer became particularly indistinct in experimentalmusic thanks to new practices in performer choice and instrumentation JohnCage and the pianist David Tudor worked as colleagues in such a fashion andthe latter also toured alone playing his own works43

The authority of the composer over the performer and performing institu-tions became a major issue professionally and ideologically at various points inmusic history A patron of Josquin des Prez in the late 1047297fteenth century admitted that the composer would not produce the proper kind of music for a court nearly as efficiently as less brilliant musicians Claudio Monteverdi usedhis high reputation as cultural capital when he bargained with the Duke of Mantua over his demand that he be able to travel much more often than wasconventional44 The composer rsquos control of opera production grew signi1047297cantly

under Luigi Cherubini in Paris in the 1790s and then with Giuseppe Verdi inthe middle of the nineteenth century The independence of the highest-levelcomposer expanded with Joseph Haydnrsquos freedom from the Esterhaacutezy courtLudwig van Beethovenrsquos private patronage in his ailing years and Franz Liszt rsquosleadership of the Saxe-Coburg court in Weimar Richard Wagner drew uponthe rhetoric of revolutionary politics to assert his ability to control everythingin an opera house Composers began building institutions to defend their interests through the Allgemeine Deutsche Musikverein (1861) and the

Socieacuteteacute National de Musique (1871)The diff erent modes of listening in diff erent social contexts have alsorequired negotiation among those involved in musical performance Today rsquosreaders bring to the subject 1047297rmly established sets of assumptions whichoriginated in the break between what was eventually called classical musicand popular music It was often assumed in classical music concerts by around1870 that the higher mode of listening takes place in a formal context where nomovement or sound is permitted from the audience although dispute breaksout periodically over applause anywhere other than at the end of a work45

Practices vary today in the diverse kinds of jazz rock crossover or worldmusic audiences may be just as strict as in the classical world or much less so

The intense moral assumptions which arose in the classical-music worldmake it difficult for us to understand etiquette prior to the early nineteenthcentury Concert and opera came about recently after all The primary con-texts where music was performed from the Middle Ages through the

43 W Weber lsquoJohn Cage his life and time changesrsquo Los Angeles Times 28 March 1976 and lsquo ldquoRainforest rdquoan electronic ecology rsquo Los Angeles Times 20 November 197544 P Weiss and R Taruskin Music in the Western World A History in Documents New York Schirmer 1984pp 97 ndash100 121ndash3 180ndash445 A Ross lsquo Why so serious When the classical concert took shapersquo New Yorker 8 September 2008 79ndash81





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


seventeenth century were in church services and before or after dinnerPurposes other than musical performance were always involved and in somecontexts people might move speak or indeed sing during the performanceSocial custom preserved a certain decorum by regulating what happened

through an implicit negotiation between people with diff erent interests Inthe 1047297fteenth-century Burgundian court Howard Brown tells us dinnersweets and drink were consumed then dancing would commence and 1047297nally courtiers would sing solos or duets seemingly to an attentive audience46

During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries etiquette was the most varied in opera houses since they were a key social gathering-point for theupper classes and less disruption must have gone on in concerts47

Four historical periods

We will now examine the character which the patterns of collaboration andcon1047298ict in musical performance acquired in diff erent periods What was thenature of political structures in a period and how did that in1047298uence the natureof performing institutions How did dualities between court and city or oldand new music play out in a period In what respects did the structure of themusical community change from one period to another

1450ndash1700

Historians agree for the most part that the four centuries from about 1300 to1700 comprised a distinct period in economy society and politics that is oftencalled the lsquoearly modernrsquo period or the ancien reacutegime48 By around 1300 settledcultivation had become the norm in most parts of Europe bringing somethingof a money economy focused on the cities A limited but workable statesovereignty was achieved by rulers in France England Bavaria Austria and

Spain and in diff erent ways by the Holy Roman Empire and archbishopricssuch as Mainz Trier and Salzburg Nobility and monarchy vied for power within complicated frameworks of authority and justice Kings dukes and

46 H M Brown lsquoSongs after supper How the aristocracy entertained themselves in the 1047297fteenthcentury rsquo in M Fink R Gstrein and G Moumlssmer (eds) Musica Privata Die Rolle der Musik im privaten Leben Festschrift zum 65 Geburtstag von Walter Salmen Innsbruck Helbling 1991 pp 37 ndash5247 J H Johnson Listening in Paris A Cultural History Berkeley University of California Press 1995

W Weber lsquoDid people listen in the eighteenth centuryrsquo Early Music 25 (1997) 678ndash91 M Riley Musical Listening in the German Enlightenment Attention Wonder and Astonishment Aldershot Ashgate 200448 J Merriman History of Modern Europe 2 vols 2nd edn New York Norton 2004 ch 1 lsquoForum thegeneral crisis of the seventeenth century revisitedrsquo American Historical Review 113 (2008) 1029ndash99especially J Dewald lsquoCrisis chronology and the shaping of European social history rsquo P Goubert transS Cox as The Ancien Regime French Society 1600ndash1750 New York Harper amp Row 1973





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


archbishops accordingly competed with one another on a relatively equal planein displaying the cultural pre-eminence of their courts49

As usually discussed the term Renaissance means a congeries of culturaleconomic and political aspects with a period whose perimeters are difficult to

de1047297ne Whether the revival of ancient works was related to the other aspects isa moot point for as Randolph Starn put it scholars look at the period witheither fascination or denial50 A longer period is now of greater interest to somehistorians since so much of what was developing in the 1400s ndash economicexpansion state formation and growing literacy ndash can be traced back to the1300s The growing independence of secular from sacred music did not 1047298ow from any set of ideas such as humanism but rather resulted from the growingpower and centrality of secular institutions and the reshaping of Christianity

Sacred and secular music ended up mutually interdependent in the long runMusical culture reached a new level of performing activity in both public and

private contexts by around 1450 from southern Italy to eastern Germany andnorth to England Reinhard Strohm characterised what went on in that periodas lsquolike a breaking of barriers everywhere a 1047298ooding of ideas an irrigation of desertsrsquo51 A set of practices for polyphonic as well as homophonic musicspread widely across Europe based on the composition of individualised piecesof music and the recognition of greatness in certain ones Competition among

magnates expanded musical activities enormously in scale and in qualityOrdinary people in many cities could easily hear masses or concerts in churchesor plazas the music often written by major composers from diff erent parts of Europe The most privileged members of the upper classes enjoyed a new kindof lsquoprivatised devotionrsquo when they sat down and listened to a singer a lute duoand perhaps an instrumental ensemble Composers began to acquire a self-conscious identity though opinions as to when that occurred range fromGuillaume Dufay in the early 1047297fteenth century to Josquin des Prez a century later52

During the early modern period the musical life in courts and cities tended tobe fairly separate from one another even though music and musical practiceswere often related and similar in many respects A gulf lay between courts of themajor monarchs and the cities they governed as is best seen in the German states

49 For discussion of European history 1300ndash1700 see Merriman A History of Modern Europe ch 1 andGoubert The Ancien Regime50 Brown and Stein Music in the Renaissance pp 1ndash7 R Starn lsquoRenaissance reduxrsquo American Historical Review 103 (1998) 122ndash4 and other articles on the problem in the same issue51 Strohm Rise of European Music pp 1ndash1052 R Wegman The Crisis of Music in Early Modern Europe 1470ndash1530 New York Routledge 2005

A Planchart lsquoThe early career of Guillaume Du Fay rsquo Journal of the American Musicological Society 46(1993) 342ndash68





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


around 1450 In any one city bourgeois and nobles interacted continuouslynobles living either inside or outside the walls and city officials setting thestandard of conduct By 1500 at least 150 German courts and 100 cities providedstrong musical activities chie1047298y for processions banquets and dancing Sacred

and secular music1047298owed back and forth from one to another for they could not do without one other But no other European city save Venice could equal thescale of musical activities found in a major court such as Dresden53 Only in theeighteenth century did capital cities come to rival the courts

The world of opera emerged within the dualism of court and city Thecomplex of theatres in Italian cities included a multitude of mixtures betweencourt and city institutions Court productions and their audiences were some-times larger than those in the city but in neither context did the opera public

involve many people outside the upper classes and professionals attendant upon their needs54 Opera provided a place where political and social exchangecould go on despite the disruptions of war political upheaval or economicchange In Italy talented men tended to go into the theatre rather than businessor government after economic decline and diplomatic irrelevance set in after the late sixteenth century55 The social ambience in theatres ndash keen attention tokey scenes yet talking and walking at other moments ndash suited the needs of European elites generally By 1700 the musical and social strength and stability

of Italian opera had aff

orded a model of elite entertainment for the rest of Europe Italian vocal music began to serve as a cosmopolitan standard evenwhere as in France listeners only heard it at concerts

The eighteenth century

European politics changed fundamentally in the late seventeenth centuryfollowing a hundred years of widespread civil war and economic decline A new order developed whereby monarchs built standing armies and enjoyed

territorial sovereignty unchallenged by dissident dukes Countries achievedvarying solutions to the threat of civil war as the nature of monarchy changednervous absolutism in Bourbon France mixed authority in England anddependence on Habsburg or Bourbon rule among the diverse Italian statesThe notion of the public sharing in state authority ndash part of what JuumlrgenHabermas termed the public sphere ndash began to arise in Britain and France

53 K Polk German Instrumental Music of the Late Middle Ages Players Patrons and Performance Practice Cambridge University Press 1992 pp 68 and passim54 T Walker and L Bianconi lsquoProduction consumption and political function of seventeenth-century operarsquo Early Music History 4 (1984) 209ndash9655 H Koenigsberger lsquoRepublics and courts in Italian and European culture in the sixteenth and seven-teenth centuriesrsquo Past and Present 83 (1979) 32ndash56





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


then Italy Germany and the Habsburg lands The vast expansion in thecirculation of books and periodicals and the concentration of elites in capitalcities limited state authority in signi1047297cant ways As freewheeling discoursebegan in salons and coff ee shops cultural life apart from courts took on a new

primacy in the marshalling of public opinionMusical life took on an increasingly urban and public focus in this context

Capital cities were much larger and more powerful than they had been acentury earlier and some musicians were motivated to take on more or lessfreelance careers By 1700 many musicians in London and Paris were workingvariously with the court the theatres wealthy families concert productionsand the publishing business A court was often now dependent upon the city near it and principal court theatres came under municipal control Cities

diff ered in the relative importance of monopolies and entrepreneurism for musical activities within the city Paris possessed by far the strictest set of cultural monopolies followed fairly closely by Leipzig once the subscriptionconcerts in the Gewandhaus were founded in 1781 Entrepreneurism went thefurthest in London where a sequence of political upheavals in the seventeenthcentury limited municipal control over concerts almost completely Viennesemusicians became equally adventurous from the 1780s

The growth of periodicals and the broadening of political participation for

the better-off

classes gave birth to the notion that the public held a form of political authority even though that amounted essentially to the manipulationof opinion towards partisan ends Those who wrote about opera and concert performances rei1047297ed the Public in order to sway taste and give a new kind of authority to learned or opinionated listeners Essays expressing controversialopinions set off episodes called querelles in France and these had close parallelsin other countries In 1706 John Dennis began a querelle over Italian opera inLondon with the Essay on the Operas after the Italian Manner just as FranccediloisRaguenet had done in Parallegravele des Italiens et des Franccedilois en ce qui regarde la

musique et les opeacuteras (1702) It is wise to be careful with usage of the term lsquopublicspherersquo which can easily amount to clicheacute Juumlrgen Habermas de1047297ned it asopen-ended discourse on aff airs of state authority which ought not be seenas always extending into realms of society in that period While cultural worldsinteracted with state political issues they had their own political institutionswhich need independent de1047297nition56 Members of the nobility as well as thebourgeoisie participated in this intellectual activity anyone able and ready to

56 C Calhoun (ed) Habermas and the Public Sphere Cambridge MA MIT Press 1992 and T Blanning TheCulture of Power and the Power of Culture Old Regime Europe 1660ndash1789 Oxford University Press 2002pp 1ndash25





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


off er an opinion by de1047297nition formed part of the new framework of publicdiscussion

Cosmopolitan taste primarily for Italian opera came to wield a specially strong hegemony in eighteenth-century musical life its authority based in the

capital cities To be sure wealthy or in1047298uential families had long de1047297ned their high status by 1047298aunting the internationalism of their culture But that tendency became more pronounced at the turn of the eighteenth century by which timeelite families were residing for a substantial part of the year in London ParisMadrid and Vienna The metropolis predominated over the court in upper-class social life in these cities and off ered a new culture of upper-class con-sumption A redistribution of wealth from countryside to capital city thuscame about enabled by the state and fuelled the development of the capital

cities57

Those who led this culture were often called the beau monde or lsquothe Worldrsquo which included people from the high nobility in1047298uential professionalsand the female demi-monde London and Paris became the arbiters of tastewithin Europe as a whole A new kind of consumer-oriented magazine kept readers informed about elite pleasures in those two cities ndash dress promenad-ing equipage politics theatre and a lot of Italian opera Germans knowinghow weak Berlin seemed compared to London or Paris saw the change withparticular clarity while reading the Journal des Luxus und der Moden begun in

Weimar in 1787 and the journal London und Paris begun in Leipzig in 1798The latter periodical published articles only from London and ParisTensions sharpened during this period between the cosmopolitan and the

local in musical taste In Italy works written to texts in regional dialects wereperformed in the leading theatres where educated ndash in eff ect cosmopolitan ndash

Italian was the norm As historian John Rosselli put it by 1720 opera witheducated Italian became lsquoa regular and foremost entertainment rsquo within north-ern and central Italy and from the Iberian peninsula to London and CentralEurope58 Yet many of the same opera-goers trooped to entertainments writ-

ten to vernacular texts the British ballad opera the German Singspiel andregional Italian dialects Even though cosmopolitan taste usually held sway over the domestic local traditions and professional interests remained very much in play in the process of negotiation among these diff erent musics

France was a special case in this regard With only a few exceptions theOpeacutera presented only works set to French texts by French composers until the1770s France had remained unusually inward-looking socially its regionaldiversity in language law and culture made the upper classes suspicious of

57 D Ringrose lsquoCapital cities and urban networksrsquo in B Lepetit and P Clark (eds) Capital Cities and their Hinterlands in Early Modern Europe Aldershot Ashgate 199658 J Rosselli Singers of Italian Opera The History of a Profession Cambridge University Press 1992 pp 20ndash1





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


foreigners Italians particularly Yet a cabal of connoisseurs spread taste for Italian vocal music among the public encouraging performance of selectionsfrom Italian opera at the dominant concert series the Concert Spirituel (1725ndash

91) The admission of Italian and Austrian works to the Acadeacutemie Royale de

Musique during the 1770s formed part of the rethinking of French politicsoften called libeacuteration which presaged the Revolution of 1789

In London the Kingrsquos Theatre followed a diff erent ndash indeed the opposite ndash

policy with equal rigour almost no work set by British-born composers wasperformed there until the premiere of Michael Balfersquos Falsta ff with Italian textin 1838 British politics had a good deal to do with this the Whiggish nobleswho dominated both the Hanoverian Succession and the Kingrsquos Theatrede1047297ned their new authority culturally in the supremacy of Italian opera Yet

music by British composers was widely performed in the theatres pleasuregardens music clubs and bene1047297t concerts Operas by Thomas Arne WilliamShield and Charles Dibdin drew a wide and passionate public and during thenineteenth century a canon of their music developed in editions of songs fromtheir works

What role did the Enlightenment play in musical life of the eighteenthcentury The set of movements led by les lumiegraveres in France and called die

Aufklaumlrung in Germany ndash then dubbed the Enlightenment by American college

professors in the 1920s ndash

interacted with musical culture in complicated waysThe term is too often rei1047297ed and made a simplistic label The most speci1047297cde1047297nition of Enlightenment is to see it as a critique of tradition or custom aneff ort to reform that was directed most intensively at the established Churchwhether Catholic or Protestant Daniel Heartz followed a broader de1047297nition in

Music in European Capitals The Galant Style 1720ndash178059 Finding great diff er-ences between the movements across Europe I tend to favour the strict de1047297nition following Robert Darnton in distinguishing between theEnlightenment and the cultural life of the eighteenth century in general60

We can speak of lsquoenlightenedrsquo opinion in the musical writings of Jean-JacquesRousseau and in eff orts to systematise musical knowledge in essays by suchwriters as William Addison or Johann Mattheson Yet relatively few ideologicalcampaigns against tradition comparable to those made against the Church canbe found in musical life in this period After all most repertoires continued tobe self-renewing as new works succeeded the old and printed musical com-mentary was in its infancy The nature of the Austrian Aufklaumlrung is particularly

59 D Heartz Music in European Capitals New York Norton 200360 R Darnton lsquoIn search of the Enlightenment recent attempts to create a social history of ideasrsquo Journal of Modern History 43 (1971) 113ndash32 R Darnton lsquoThe High Enlightenment and the low-life of literature inpre-revolutionary Francersquo Past and Present 51 (May 1971) 81ndash115





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


problematic Hermann Abert and Derek Beales have shown that Mozart avoided political or religious controversy and indeed followed Catholicdogma carefully in his settings of sacred works Dorothy Koenigsberger pointed out that the Masonic ideas in Die Zauber 1047298 oumlte are rooted in late medieval

ideas just as much as in enlightened thought61

Despite the continuing predominance of new works over the old a few canonic repertoires began to appear chie1047298y in France and in Britain The twocountries possessed the most fully developed states and music tended toremain in performance longer there because the monarch no longer served asthe patron bringing in new works The operas and ballets of Jean-Baptiste Lully were revived regularly at the Paris Opeacutera and selections from them appeared inconcerts in cities such as Lyon and Bordeaux62 The unusually long performing

season in Parisndash

with closure only for two weeks after Easter ndash

made the Opeacuteraneed more repertoire than did its counterparts in London or Naples An evenlonger canonic tradition existed in Britain where sacred works from the latesixteenth century survived in the some cathedrals and chapels and madrigals of the same vintage were sung in a few homes and clubs The persistence of operasby Hasse and Carl Heinrich Graun in Berlin the Prussian capital con1047297rms thepattern that canonic repertoire appeared in the most fully developed stateswhere the monarch ceased to be patron Lacking both money and will

Frederick II King of Prussia kept the operas in performance after the Seven Years War63

The world of cultivated music existing in the 1780s was a tightly bound set of institutions and tastes that had been developing for a century and a halfConcert programmes tended to be similar in most contexts mixing operaselections concertos symphonies pieces from sacred works and in somecontexts chamber pieces Even though some genres were regarded as moreelevated than others sometimes performed in separate theatres their linkswithin the tightly bound musical community proved much more signi1047297cant

than any aesthetic hierarchy In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuriesthe word lsquopopular rsquo did not carry strong ideological implications it simply meant that a particular number of people liked a piece A set of political

61 H Abert W A Mozart trans S Spencer and ed C Eisen New Haven and London Yale University Press 2007 D Beales Mozart and the Habsburgs 1992 Stenton Lectures University of Reading 1993D Koenigsberger lsquo A new metaphor for Mozart rsquos Magic Flutersquo European Studies Review 5 (1975) 229ndash75J Van Horn Melton lsquoSchool stage salon musical cultures in Haydnrsquos Viennarsquo Journal of Modern History762 (2004) 251ndash7962 Weber Great Transformation of Musical Taste pp 65ndash81 and W Weber lsquoLes programmes de concertsde Bordeaux agrave Bostonrsquo in P Taiumleb N Morel-Borotra and J Gribenski (eds) Le Museacutee de Bordeaux et lamusique de concert 1783ndash 93 University of Rouen 2005 pp 175ndash9363 J Mangum lsquo Apollo and the German muses opera and the articulation of class politics and society inPrussia 1740ndash1806rsquo PhD thesis University of California Los Angeles (2002)





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


processes ndash con1047298icts and compromises ndash endowed contrasting musical activ-ities and tastes with a tenuous unity Some people complained about noise at the opera others about clicheacute-ridden lsquooccasionalrsquo pieces or virtuoso numbersBut save for a few exceptions ndash the idealistic commentator John Hawkins most

prominently ndash idealists basically kept their peace in this period

The nineteenth century

By the time of the Congress of Vienna in 1814 ndash15 the musical world just describedhad begun to fall apart The lsquocrisis of the old order rsquo as historians have long termedit began with a series of internal crises as early as one in Geneva in the early 1760sleading to upheaval of some sort almost everywhere in Europe and the Americas

The Napoleonic Wars now seem as important as the French Revolution of 1789 inwidely bringing about a questioning of the nature of political authority That instability helped produce change in cultural worlds that could be related to but not necessarily derived from national politics Musicians and leading amateurstook advantage of the situation to startcreating new kinds of musicalpresentationeither to take advantage of growing commercial markets or to apply idealisticprinciples of high-level music-making or a mixture of both A half century of turbulent change ensued until the Revolutions of 1848ndash9 contributed to forcing

the question of how musical life should be de1047297

ned and a new order came intoexistence within a decade or so Much of the musical world found in 1870 stillexists in our experience today Thus did the periods of change in national politicsand musical culture evolve in tandem

The expansion of musical activities and the public involved in them grew from the rapid growth in urban population creating a set of social structureswhich could not be united in the fashion attempted in the 1780s The rise of new kinds of production and marketing in cultural goods drew more peoplefrom the general population into musical life than had been the case previously

In 1837 the journalist and publisher Leacuteon Escudier introduced the new period-ical France Musicale by stating that lsquoMusic is proliferating with astonishingspeed today The art has passed from the theatre into the salons from salonsinto the shops from there onto the street seeking to become a force among themassesrsquo

64 The operas of Rossini and Giacomo Meyerbeer and the virtuosity of Sigismond Thalberg and Franz Liszt appealed to the new publics much morethan did any concerts devoted chie1047298y to classical music

Nineteenth-century musical culture became deeply divided in its values One

can speak in relatively neutral terms about a dichotomy between commercial

64 lsquoProspectusrsquo France Musicale 31 December 1838 p 1





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


and idealistic notions of musical activity Commercial eff orts sprang up most dynamically in the repackaging of well-known opera selections and virtuosopieces for amateurs as well as in piano transcriptions of classical worksIdealistic principles were part of the discourse emanating from orchestral

societies and string-quartet series which aimed to raise the taste of the hetero-geneous new public The term lsquoclassical musicrsquo became standard by 1830 andwas understood to denote 1047297rmly works by revered usually deceased compos-ers their music being thought to elevate taste beyond the lsquotrashrsquo of fantasies onopera melodies By the 1860s the word lsquopopular rsquo carried an ideological edgewhich editors of booklets of opera selections used to their own advantage

Producers of concerts might borrow from the language of both classicalmusic and popular song as they probed opportunistically to build new publics

Even though the opera fantasy was unusual in orchestral concerts by 1870 theSociety of the Friends of Music in Vienna still off ered selections from ageingoperas and folk songs popularised by Jenny Lind By the same token theentrepreneurs who built lsquopromenadersquo concerts ndash where listeners could walk during the performance ndash would perform one or two movements from aBeethoven symphony along with opera medleys and quadrilles waltzes andpolkas A new kind of lsquomiscellaneousrsquo programme developed in promenadeconcerts and is still widely produced today

Musical institutions and professions became rooted in the new aestheticvocabulary During the 1830s music critics assumed for themselves an author-ity far stronger than any connoisseurs or commentators in music life hadclaimed previously Such critics ndash almost entirely men ndash asserted their power variously by interpreting the classics and identifying the best performers By the 1870s musicology was emerging as a scholarly discipline of sorts rootedvariously in the music conservatoires appearing in many cities and also in somecases in universities

The breakup of traditional musical culture occurred most fundamentally in

the rise of song concerts usually called the music hall the cafeacute-concert or varieacuteteacute Performing traditions in semi-private venues existed in almost every country off ering songs in rooms where listeners could eat and drink Thesong-and-supper clubs in London resembled somewhat Parisrsquos cafeacutes-chantants

and goguettes where chansons were performed to airs du couplet related to skitsof vaudeville in both contexts one can 1047297nd connoisseurs knowledgeable about the idioms presented

The musical venues which appeared during the 1840s and 1850s were much

more public and commercial focusing on star singers and involving a smallorchestra rather than a piano People from the lower middle class who attendedthese events had experienced music in public chie1047298y at theatres featuring songs





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


and skits what was called vaudeville in France Opera selections ndash Italian Britishor French ndash were also performed at almost all theatres For example in 1862

Westonrsquos Music Hall in Holborn advertised that it would off er lsquoMozart rsquos great worksrsquo a Rossini medley and a piece from Daniel Auber rsquos Gustavus III (1833)

but interestingly enough a medley for four instruments based on music by Felix Mendelssohn and Vincent Wallace For that matter Canterbury Halllocated in Lambeth across the river from Westminster presented the 1047297rst British rendition of Charles Gounodrsquos Faust in concert style in 185965 Yet the great majority of the repertoire comprised well-known songs such as lsquoLook out for a rainy day rsquo and lsquoChampagne Charliersquo

The term lsquopopular musicrsquo ndash which was written occasionally ndash was just as mucha novelty in 1850 as lsquoclassical musicrsquo had been in 1810 That is why one has to be

impressed with the prominence scale and professionalism achieved by musichalls and cafeacutes-concerts in their early decades Although these events grew out of strong traditions of music-making what emerged by 1870 aff ected a far wider range of social classes and stood proudly independent from elite institutions If the British music halls constituted the largest scale of entertainment and balladconcerts the most distinct national taste French cafeacutes-concerts acquired what Bernard Gendron called a lsquocultural empowerment of popular musicrsquo taking onan authority parallel to the Conservatoire concerts66 Particularly signi1047297cant

divisions occurred over matters of taste in Britain as quarrels arose over wholsquopossessedrsquo opera selections ndash the classical-music orchestras or the music hallsThe city with the freest market in musical life was thus the most fragmented intaste But the early opera galas stood apart from popular music Opera wasidenti1047297ed with neither classics nor with popular songs and it was thereby ableto contribute a common culture to the increasingly fragmented musical world

The twentieth century

The framework of institutions and tastes formed around 1850 continued to exist in the twentieth century to a considerable extent Some old con1047298icts became evensharper than before especially those surrounding the dichotomies between thepopular and the classical and between the new and the old But fresh opportu-nities emerged in the exploitation of technology for novel performing techniquesand expanding publics beyond the concert hall67 Wholly new types of musicrevitalised public life jazz big-band dance music and rock rsquonrsquo roll

65 Weber Great Transformation of Musical Taste p 29266 B Gendron Between Montmartre and the Mudd Club Popular Music and the Avant-garde University of Chicago Press 2002 p 567 See R P Morgan Modern Times From World War I to the Present Englewood Cliff s NJ Prentice Hall 1993





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


Even though canonic repertoires became hegemonic over musical taste for many genres by 1870 many parts of the music public remained open to hearingnew works for the most part But around 1900 an ideologically driven positionemerged that rejected new music categorically including pieces written in

conservative as well as advanced styles For example in 1913 a Leipzig mag-azine for amateur choral societies whose music was rarely lsquoprogressiversquodeclared lsquoSo you want even more modern music Havenrsquot we had enoughalready Isnrsquot it clear that as soon as a conductor brings on a new piece the hallempties out immediately and that is the best way to scare people off rsquo

68 Thusdid the twentieth-century suspicion of new music arise after ArnoldSchoenberg turned towards atonality or Igor Stravinsky began his experimentsin rhythm and texture The feverish ideological climate of the pre-war period

must have had something to do with this changePrototypical examples of the twentieth-century con1047298ict between classical

and modern music are to be found in books by the British critic Henry Pleasants and the Russo-American encyclopedist Nicolas SlonimskyPleasants opened The Agony of Modern Music (1955) by declaring that lsquoSeriousmusic is a dead art The vein which for three hundred years off ered a seemingly inexhaustible yield of beautiful music has run out What we know as modernmusic is the noise made by deluded speculators picking through the slagpilersquo

69

Slonimsky rsquo

s Lexicon of Musical Invective Critical Assaults on Composers since Beethovenrsquo s Time (1953) pre-dated Pleasantsrsquos book by two years and indeedhis Music since 1900 (1937) pre1047297gured it70 Essential to his dogmatic construct isthe erection of a modernist counter-canon founded upon the principle that great works will eventually be recognised The opening chapter lsquoNon-acceptance of the unfamiliar rsquo uses vocabulary just as blunt as Pleasantsrsquos lsquoslag-heaprsquo pointing to the lsquofossilised sensesrsquo of the anti-modernists lsquoTo listenerssteeped in traditional music modern works are meaningless as alien languagesare to a poor linguist No wonder that music critics often borrow linguistic

similes to express their recoiling horror of the modernistsrsquo71

Yet in the long term the rhetoric that highlighted the dichotomy betweenclassical and contemporary music served as a means of negotiation between thetwo sides The stalemate between new and old music became institutionalisedbut in the process practices emerged which enabled new music to maintain at

68 R Oehmichen lsquoMehr moderne Musik fuumlrs moderne taumlgliche Lebenrsquo Deutsche Saumlngerbundeszeitung 7 (June 1913) 374 Weber lsquoConsequences of Canon institutionalization of enmity between contemporary and classical music c 1910rsquo Common Knowledge 9 (2003) 78ndash9969 H Pleasants The Agony of Modern Music New York Simon amp Schuster 1955 p 370 N Slonimsky Lexicon of Musical Invective Critical Assaults on Composers since Beethovenrsquo s Time New YorkColeman-Ross 1953 p 871 Ibid p 4





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


least a limited standing within general concert life The language of depreca-tion of the new proved politically malleable despite its harshness those whospoke it ended up working out new arrangements which permitted the new and the old to relate with one another to some fashion Thus did the British

Broadcasting Corporation fund extensive performances of avant-garde worksbeginning in the late 1920s and four decades later the National Endowment for the Arts in the United States began requiring ensembles to be given grantsto off er some new music Whether that helped or hurt public appreciation of contemporary music is an open question of course72 Ideological con1047298ict 1047298ourished in such contexts In the United States the committee awardingthe distinguished Pulitzer Prize in Music (1943) came under harsh attack for itsnarrow selection in terms of style and the gendering of composers73

Early examples of New Music concerts can be found as early as the 1830sspeci1047297cally in the meetings of the Society for British Musicians and such events1047298ourished from the 1860s under the auspices of the Allgemeine DeutscheMusikverein and the Socieacuteteacute National de Musique74 Arnold Schoenbergbrought a harsh ideology to this kind of concert in barring members of thepress from the Society for Private Performances in Vienna (1919ndash21) A counter-canon of music composed after 1900 began at a remarkably early date Founded in 1922 the International Society for Contemporary Music

gathered together composers of very diff

erent kinds off

ering programmeswhich parallel the present-day canon closelyIn the course of the twentieth century government support replaced private

patronage to a great extent thereby changing many dimensions of musical lifeNational identities became sharper than in the early nineteenth century asconservatoires and concerts came under the aegis of the nation-state the (tosome minds dubious) idea of a national music became deeply institutionalisedEven though some monarchs had previously set the tone for opera resistanceto the music they championed encouraged quite diff erent composers and

styles75 The regimes in the Third Reich the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the German Democratic Republic enforced policies on musicin some ways more restrictive than can be found in the nineteenth century76

72 J Doctor The BBC and the Ultra-modern Music 1927 ndash 36 Shaping a Nationrsquo s Tastes Cambridge University Press 1999 J Pasler lsquoThe political economy of composition in the American University 1965ndash1985rsquo inJ Pasler Writing through Music Oxford University Press 2008 pp 318ndash6273 httpenwikipediaorgwikiPulitzer_Prize_for_Music74 Weber Great Transformation of Musical Taste pp 138 140 238 240ndash5 252 30575 G Cowart The Triumph of Pleasure Louis XIV and the Politics of Spectacle University of Chicago Press200876 J H Calico lsquoldquoFuumlr eine neue deutsche Nationaloper rdquo Opera in the discourses of uni1047297cation andlegitimation in the German Democratic Republicrsquo in C Applegate and P Potter (eds) Music and German National Identity University of Chicago Press 2002 pp 190ndash204





7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


Resistance to official policy did of course occur many historians of theseregimes in fact now avoid using the term lsquototalitarianrsquo

Technology opened up a wide range of opportunities for diff erent musicalcultures The phonograph and the radio widened the range of potential listen-

ing to an extent little imagined in 1900 The recording business almost startedfrom scratch in conceiving and organising its lists of repertoire Classics andpopular songs were originally mixed together in lists of recordings rather aswas the case with early nineteenth-century editors of musical editions A sorting out of musical and aesthetic categories came about as groups of listen-ers would meet in club-like gatherings to hear new recordings77 Canonicframeworks took form as people began to hear works at their own leisure

During the twentieth century opera ceased to provide a common ground

between classical and popular music as opera repertoires became even morerigidly canonic than orchestral ones by 1930 With the rise of rock music andthe rage for the Beatles in the 1960s intellectual links began growing amongthe widely separated regions of musical taste In 1970 Richard Meltzer claim-ing to have been expelled as a student from Yale University published The

Aesthetics of Rock lsquoSo what rsquo he wrote was lsquoa 1047297ne aesthetic judgment ndash because it sums up a valid experience and leaves the work itself untarnished rsquo78 Much of the music Meltzer heralded eventually entered a canon parallel to that in the

classical world Likewise by the late 1980s a jazz canon had become so 1047297

rmly established that young jazz players struggled to be recognised just about asmuch as lsquonew classicalrsquo composers did

The process of fragmentation that broke up the eighteenth-century musicalworld around 1800 thus continued in incremental stages for two more cen-turies as types of music and musical sociability expanded in number andvariety Crossover styles between jazz rock pop and classical music provedproblematic the main worlds remained stubbornly separate from one anotherlsquoEarly musicrsquo brought about a vital new musicality beginning in the 1960s but

its self-de1047297nition ndash the much debated principle of lsquoauthenticity rsquo ndash remainedcontroversial79 Once again we 1047297nd the main story of this book the multi-plication of musical cultures competing for public attention

77 S Maisonneuve lsquoLa constitution drsquoune culture et drsquoune eacutecoute musicale nouvelles le disque et sessociabiliteacutes comme agents de changement culturel dans les anneacutees 1920 et 1930 rsquo Revue de musicology 88(2002) 43ndash66 and Lrsquo Invention du disque 1877 ndash1949 Genegravese de l rsquo usage des meacutedias musicaux contemporainsParis Eacuteditions des Archives Contemporaines 200978 R Meltzer The Aesthetics of Rock New York Something Else Press 1970 p 12 See also C W Jones

The Rock Canon Canonical Values in the Reception of Rock Albums Aldershot Ashgate 2008 and M Long Beautiful Monsters Imagining the Classic in Musical Media Berkeley University of California Press 200879 See Lawson and Stowell The Historical Performance of Music Nicholas Kenyon (ed) Authenticity and Early Music Oxford University Press 1988


7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007


2

Political process social structure andmusical performance in Europe since 1450

W IL L I A M WE B ER

I will examine the history of musical performance by in political terms seeinghowaculturalcommunityisshapedbydiff ering groups and forces Performinginvolves interaction among people involved in organising paying listening

and interpreting Their relationships may vary at any time from close collabo-ration to intense con1047298ict Diff erent kinds of communities interact in thispolitical process variously the performing institution a court or a city andthe state or a region of states Negotiation must go on among participantsaccording to organisational rules musical practices and 1047297nancial constraintsTradition and change compete with each other under pressure from socialmovements and individual opportunism While these factors are usually just taken for granted crises often make them articulated in print

An effi

cient way to enquire into these social and political processes is toexamine dualities which have recurred in Western musical life since the lateMiddle Ages Involving collaboration and con1047298ict to varying extents the dual-ities within performing relationships can help us go beyond the banal phraselsquoMusic and Society rsquo by identifying the dynamics aspects of musical culture The1047297rst section of this chapter brie1047298y examines musical dualities under threeheadings ndash Location Production and Taste The second section discusseshow the dualities generally played out during four periods of music history since around 1450 Scholars typically agree that a public musical world

emerged by around 1450 in Western and Central Europe and we can seelines of continuity from that time to the present1 It is indeed enlighteningto see how the origins of modern practices can reach back so far Even thoughthe dualities aff ecting musical life changed in nature from one period toanother they largely retained certain basic roles throughout our period

(A) LocationCourt and city Nobles and bourgeois

Cosmopolitan versus local or national

1 R Strohm The Rise of European Music (1380ndash1500) Cambridge University Press 1993

[35]




7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






Location












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Mannheim4













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007

















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Production














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






Location












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Mannheim4













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007

















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Production














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Mannheim4













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007

















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Production














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007

















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Production














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Production














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



Production














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






horns31









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007











Taste







7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







the better-off








7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007





cities57












7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007



















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007
















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







69

Slonimsky rsquo









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007






erent kinds off









7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007














7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007













7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007







1450ndash1700









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7262019 c Bo 9781139025966 a 007















c Bo 9781139025966 a 007

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Transcript of c Bo 9781139025966 a 007