Bahasa Inggris Profesi II
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Transcript of Bahasa Inggris Profesi II
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CHAPTER I
PARTS OF SPEECH
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After completing this lesson, students are supposed to be able torecognize parts of speech, analyze sentences and understand themand construct good sentences.
A.
INTRODUCTION
There are thousands of words in any language. But not allwords have the same job. For example, some words express "action".Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to
another word. These are the "building blocks" of the language. Thinkof them like the parts of a house. When we want to build a house, weuse concrete to make the foundations or base. We use bricks to makethe walls. We use window frames to make the windows, and doorframes to make the doorways. And we use cement to join them alltogether. Each part of the house has its own job. And when we wantto build a sentence, we use the different types of word. Each type ofword has its own job.
We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes.These classes are called "parts of speech".These are the words thatyou use to make a sentence. There are only8 types of word - and themost important is the Verb!
Verbs Nouns
Adjectives
Adverbs
Pronouns Prepositions Conjunctions
Interjections
B. PARTS OF SPEECH TABLE
This is a summary of the 8 parts of speech*. You can find
more detail if you click on each part of speech.
part of
speechfunction or
"job"example
wordsexample sentences
http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/parts-of-speech.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adjectives.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adjectives.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adverbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adverbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/interjections.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/interjections.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/interjections.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adverbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adjectives.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/parts-of-speech.htm -
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Verb action or state
(to) be,have, do,like, work,sing, can,
must
EnglishClub.com isaweb site. I likeEnglishClub.com.
Noun thing or person
pen, dog,work,music, town,London,teacher,John
This is my dog. Helives in my house.We live in London.
Adjectivedescribes anoun
a/an, the, 2,some, good,
big, red,well,interesting
I have twodogs. Mydogs are big. I likebigdogs.
Adverb
describes a
verb, adjectiveor adverb
quickly,silently,
well, badly,very, really
My dog eatsquickly. When he is
veryhungry, he eatsreallyquickly.
Pronounreplaces anoun
I, you, he,she, some
Tara is Indian. Sheisbeautiful.
Prepositionlinks a noun toanother word
to, at, after,on, but
We went toschoolonMonday.
Conjunction
joins clausesor sentences orwords
and, but,when
I like dogs andI likecats. I like cats anddogs. I like dogs butI don't like cats.
Interjection
shortexclamation,sometimes
inserted into asentence
oh!, ouch!,
hi!, well
Ouch! That hurts!Hi! How are you?
Well, I don't know.
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* Some grammar sources categorize English into 9 or 10 parts ofspeech. At EnglishClub.com, we use the traditional categorization of8parts of speech. Examples of other categorizations are:
Verbs may be treated as two different parts of speech:o
Lexical Verbs(work, like, run)o
Auxiliary Verbs(be, have, must) Determinersmay be treated as a separate part of speech,
instead of being categorized under Adjectives
Parts of Speech Examples
Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:
verb
Stop!
noun verb
John works.
noun verb verb
John is working.
pronou
nverb noun
Sheloves
animals.
nounver
badjectiv
enoun
Animals
like kindpeople.
nou
nverb noun
adver
b
Tara speaks
English
well.
nou
nverb
adjecti
venoun
Tara speaks
good English.
pronoun verb preposition adjective noun adverb
She ran to the station quickly.
pron. verb adj. noun conjunction pron. verb pron.
She likes big snakes but I hate them.
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Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:
interjecti
onpro
n.con
j.adj.
nou
nver
bpre
p.noun
adver
b
Well, she andyoung
John
walk
toschool
slowly.
Words with More than One Job
Many words in English can have more than one job, or be more than
one part of speech. For example, "work" can be a verb and a noun;"but" can be a conjunction and a preposition; "well" can be anadjective, an adverb and an interjection. In addition, many nouns canact as adjectives.
To analyze the part of speech, ask yourself: "What job is this worddoing in this sentence?"
In the table below you can see a few examples. Of course, there aremore, even for some of the words in the table. In fact, if you look in agood dictionary you will see that the word "but" has six jobs to do:
verb, noun, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjuction!
word part of speech example
worknoun My workis easy.
verb I workin London.
butconjunction
John came butMary didn'tcome.
preposition Everyone came butMary.
well
adjective Are you well?
adverb She speaks well.
interjection Well! That's expensive!
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afternoon
noun We ate in the afternoon.
noun acting asadjective
We had afternoontea.
C.
VERBS
1. What are Verbs?
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb.You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!"You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true.Many verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. Forexample, words like run, fight, doand workall convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea ofexistence, of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seemand belongall convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English",Johnis the subject andspeaksis the verb.) In simple terms, therefore,we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject doesor is;they describe:
action(Ram plays football.)
state(Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other
words (adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form(although nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost allverbs change in form. For example, the verb to workhas five forms:
to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languageswhich may have thirty or more forms for a single verb.
2. Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
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1. Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
I can.
People must.
The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anythingto you? Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbsand have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for thegrammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us verymuch alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They"help" the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples aretherefore incomplete. They need at least a main verb to completethem.) There are only about 15 helping verbs.
2. Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
I teach.
People eat. The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicatedsomething to you? Probably yes! Not a lot, but something. That's
because these verbs are main verbsand have meaning on their own.They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.
In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbsand main verbs. Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb.Only some of them have a helping verb.
helping verb main verb
John likes coffee.
You lied to me.
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They are happy.
The children are playing.
We must go now.
I do not want any.
Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall
see on the following pages.
Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs".
Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary forthe grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very
much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They"help" the main verb (which has the real meaning). There are onlyabout 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two basicgroups:
Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)
These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three
verbs as helping verbs oras main verbs. On this page we talk aboutthem as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:
beo
to make continuous tenses (He iswatching TV.)o
to make the passive (Small fish areeaten by big fish.)
haveo
to make perfect tenses (I havefinished my homework.)
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doo
to make negatives (I donot like you.)o
to ask questions (Doyou want some coffee?)o
to show emphasis (I dowant you to pass your exam.)o
to stand for a main verb in some constructions (Hespeaks faster than she does.)
Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)
We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning of the mainverb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or
possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are themodal verbs:
can, could may, might will, would,
shall, should
must ought to
Here are examples using modal verbs:
I can'tspeak Chinese.
John mayarrive late. Wouldyou like a cup of coffee? You shouldsee a doctor.
I really mustgo now.
Main Verbs
Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".
Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlikehelping verbs). Thereare thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in severalways:
Transitive and intransitive verbs
A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President.An intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many
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verbs, like speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at theseexamples:
transitive:
I sawan elephant. We are watchingTV.
He speaksEnglish.
intransitive:
He has arrived. John goesto school.
She speaksfast.
Linking verbs
A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" thesubject to what is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verbshows equality (=) or a change to a different state or place (>).Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not all intransitive verbs are
linking verbs).
Mary isa teacher. (mary = teacher)
Tara isbeautiful. (tara = beautiful)
That soundsinteresting. (that = interesting) The sky becamedark. (the sky > dark) The bread has gonebad. (bread > bad)
Dynamic and stative verbs
Some verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can beused with continuous tenses. Other verbs describe state (non-action, asituation). They are called "stative", and cannot normally be used withcontinuous tenses (though some of them can be used with continuoustenses with a change in meaning).
dynamic verbs (examples):
hit, explode, fight, run, go
stative verbs (examples):
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be
like, love, prefer, wish
impress, please, surprise hear, see, sound belong to, consist of, contain, include, need
appear, resemble, seem
Regular and irregular verbs
This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only realdifference between regular and irregular verbs is that they havedifferent endings for their past tense and past participle forms. Forregular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending isalways the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending andthe past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them
by heart.
regular verbs:base, past tense, past participle
look, looked, looked
work, worked, worked
irregular verbs:base, past tense, past participle
buy, bought, bought
cut, cut, cut
do, did, done
Here are lists ofregular verbs andirregular verbs.
One way to think of regular and irregular verbs is like this: allverbs
are irregular and the so-called regular verbs are simply one very large
group of irregular verbs.
Often the above divisions can be mixed. For example, one verb couldbe irregular, transitive and dynamic; another verb could be regular,transitive and stative.
Verb Forms
English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to singcan be: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing or sings. This is a total of 6
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forms. Not many, considering that some languages (French, forexample) have more than 30 forms for an individual verb. Englishtenses may be quite complicated, but the forms that we use to makethe tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb tobe, English main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To behas 9 forms.Do not confuse verb forms with tenses. We use the different verbforms to make the tenses, but they are not the same thing.
In this lesson we look at the forms of main verbs and helping(auxiliary) verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
Forms of Main Verbs
Forms of Helping Verbs
Main Verb Forms Quiz
Forms of Main Verbs
Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".
Main verbs (except the verb "be") have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. "Be" has9 forms.
V1 V2 V3
infinitiv
e base
past
simple
past
participle
present
participle
presen
t
simple,
3rdperson
singula
r
regular(to)
work
wor
k
worke
dworked working works
irregula
r
(to) sing
(to)
make
sing
mak
e
sang
made
sung
made
singing
making
sings
makes
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(to) cut cut cut cut cutting cuts
(to) do*
(to)have*
do
have
did
had
done
had
doing
having
does
has
infinitiv
ebase
past
simpl
e
past
participl
e
present
participl
e
presen
t
simple
(to) be* bewas,
werebeen being
am,
are, is
In the above examples:
to cuthas 4forms: to cut, cut, cutting, cuts
to workhas 5forms: to work, work, worked, working, works to singhas 6forms: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing, sings
to behas 9forms: to be, be, was, were, been, being, am, is, are
The infinitive can be with or without to. For example, to sing and
sing are both infinitives. We often call the infinitive without to the
"bare infinitive".
At school, students usually learn by heart the base, past simpleandpast participle(sometimes called V1, V2, V3, meaning Verb 1, Verb2, Verb 3) for the irregular verbs. They may spend many hourschanting: sing, sang, sung; go, went, gone; have, had, had; etc. Theydo not learn these for the regular verbs because the past simple and
past participle are always the same: they are formed by adding "-ed"to the base. They do not learn the present participleand 3rd personsingular present simple by heart - for another very simple reason:
they never change. The present participle is always made by adding "-ing" to the base, and the 3rd person singular present simple is alwaysmade by adding "s" to the base (though there are some variations inspelling).
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* Note that "do", "have" and "be" also function ashelping or auxiliaryverbs,with exactly the same forms (except that as helping verbs theyare never in infinitive form).
Example Sentences
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.
Infinitive
I want to work
He has to sing.
This exercise is easy to do.
Let him haveone.
To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Base - Imperative
Workwell!
Makethis.
Havea nice day. Bequiet!
Base - Present simple
(except 3rd person singular)
I workin London.
You singwell.
They havea lot of money.
Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
I can worktomorrow. You must singlouder.
They might doit.
You could beright.
Past simple
I workedyesterday.
She cuthis hair last week.
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They hada good time.
They weresurprised, but I wasnot.
Past participle
I have workedhere for five years.
He needs a folder madeof plastic. It is donelike this. I have never beenso happy.
Present participle
I am working.
Singingwell is not easy.
Havingfinished, he went home.
You are beingsilly!
3rd person singular, present simple
He worksin London.
She singswell. She hasa lot of money. It isVietnamese.
Forms of Helping Verbs
All helping verbs are used with a main verb (either expressed orunderstood*). There are 2 groups of helping verbs:
Primary helping verbs, used mainly to change the tense orvoice of the main verb, and in making questions andnegatives.
Modal helping verbs, used to change the "mood" of the mainverb.
Study the table below. It shows the prinicipal forms and uses ofhelping verbs, and explains the differences between primary and
modal helping verbs.
* Sometimes we make a sentence that has a helping verb and seems tohave no main verb. In fact, the main verb is "understood". Look at thefollowing examples:
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Question: Canyou speakEnglish? (The main verb speakis"expressed".)
Answer: Yes, I can. (The main verb speakis not expressed. Itis "understood" from the context. We understand: Yes, I canspeakEnglish.
But if somebody walked into the room and said "Hello. I can", wewould understand nothing!
Helping Verbs
Primary Modal
do
(to make simple tenses,
and questions and
negatives)
can could
be
(to make continuous
tenses, and the passive
voice)
may might
have (to make perfect tenses) will would
shall should
must
ought (to)
"Do", "be" and "have" as helping
verbs have exactly the same formsas when they aremain verbs
(except that as helping verbs they
are never used in infinitive forms).
Modal helping verbs areinvariable. They always have
the same form.
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Primary helping verbs are followed
by the main verb in a particular
form:
do+ V1 (base verb) be+ -ing (present
participle)
have+ V3 (past participle)
"Ought" is followed by the
main verb in infinitive form.
Other modal helping verbs are
followed by the main verb in
its base form (V1).
ought+ to... (infinitive)
other modals+ V1(base verb)
"Do", "be" and "have" can also
function asmain verbs.
Modal helping verbs cannot
function as main verbs.
D. NOUNS
It's not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are "things"
(and verbs are "actions"). Like food. Food (noun) is something youeat (verb). Or happiness. Happiness (noun) is something you want(verb). Or human being. A human being (noun) is something you are(verb).
What are Nouns?
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are someexamples:
person: man, woman, teacher, John, Mary
place: home, office, town, countryside, America
thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey
The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love"is a noun but can also be a verb.
Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:
1.
Ending2.
Position3. Function
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1. Noun Ending
There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, forexample:
-ity > nationality -ment > appointment
-ness > happiness
-ation > relation -hood > childhood
But this is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, thenoun "spoonful" ends in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -
ful.
2. Position in Sentence
We can often recognise a noun by its position in the sentence.
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a,an, the, this, my, such):
a relief
an afternoon the doctor this word
my house
such stupidity
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:
a great relief
a peaceful afternoon
the tall, Indian doctor this difficult word
my brown and white house
such crass stupidity
3. Function in a Sentence
Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:
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subject of verb: Doctorswork hard.
object of verb: He likes coffee.
subject and object of verb: Teachersteach students.
But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It couldbe a pronoun or a phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", thenoun is "doctor" but the subject is "My doctor".
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
English nouns are often described as "countable" or "uncountable".
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we cancount. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one,two, three or more pens. Here are some more countable nouns:
dog, cat, animal, man, person
bottle, box, litre
coin, note, dollar
cup, plate, fork table, chair, suitcase, bag
Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
My dog isplaying. My dogs arehungry.
We can use the indefinite article a/anwith countable nouns:
Adog is ananimal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word likea/the/my/thiswith it:
I want anorange. (notI want orange.)
Where is mybottle? (notWhere is bottle?)
When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:
I like oranges.
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Bottles can break.
We can use someand anywith countable nouns:
I've got somedollars. Have you got anypens?
We can use a fewand manywith countable nouns:
I've got a fewdollars.
I haven't got manypens.
"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". We can
count people:
There is one person here. There are three people here.
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide
into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, wecannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres ofmilk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some moreuncountable nouns:
music, art, love, happiness
advice, information, news
furniture, luggage
rice, sugar, butter, water electricity, gas, power money, currency
We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singularverb. For example:
Thisnews isvery important.
Your luggage looksheavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountablenouns. We cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can saya something of:
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a piece ofnews
a bottle ofwater
a grain ofrice
We can use someand anywith uncountable nouns:
I've got somemoney.
Have you got anyrice?
We can use a littleand muchwith uncountable nouns:
I've got a littlemoney. I haven't got muchrice.
Uncountable nouns are also called "mass nouns".
Here are some more examples of countable and uncountable nouns:
Countable Uncountable
dollar money
song music
suitcase luggage
table furniture
battery electricity
bottle wine
report information
tip advice
journey travel
job work
view scenery
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When you learn a new word, it's a good idea to learn whether it'scountable or uncountable.
Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable
Sometimes, the same noun can be countable anduncountable, oftenwith a change of meaning.
Countable Uncountable
There are two hairs in mycoffee!
hair I don't have much hair.
There are two lights in ourbedroom.
light Close the curtain. There's toomuch light!
Shhhhh! I thought I heard anoise.There are so many differentnoises in the city.
noiseIt's difficult to work whenthere is too much noise.
Have you got a paper to
read? (newspaper)Hand me those student
papers.
paper I want to draw a picture. Haveyou got some paper?
Our house has seven rooms. roomIs there room for me to sithere?
We had a great time at theparty.
How many times have I toldyou no?
time
Have you got time for a
coffee?
Macbethis one ofShakespeare's greatestworks.
work I have no money. I need work!
Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if
we are thinking of a cup or a glass, we can say (in a restaurant, forexample):
Two teas and one coffee please.
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Proper Nouns (Names)
A proper noun is the special word (or name) that we use for a person,place or organization, like John, Marie, London, France or Sony. Aname is a noun, but a very special noun - a proper noun. Proper nounshave special rules.
common noun proper noun
man, boy John
woman, girl Mary
country, town England, London
company Ford, Sony
shop, restaurant Maceys, McDonalds
month, day of the week January, Sunday
book, film War & Peace, Titanic
Using Capital Letters with Proper Nouns
We alwaysuse a Capital Letter for the first letter of a proper noun(name). This includes names of people, places, companies, days of theweek and months. For example:
They like John. (not*They like john.) I live in England.
She works for Sony.
The last day in January is a Monday.
We saw Titanicin the Odeon Cinema.
Proper Nouns without THE
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We do not use "the" with names of people. For example:
first namesBill (not*the Bill)
Hilary
surnamesClinton
Gates
full names Hilary Gates
We do not normally use "the" with names of companies. For example:
Renault, Ford, Sony, EnglishClub.com
General Motors, Air France, British Airways Warner Brothers, Brown & Son Ltd
If the full (registered) name of a company starts with "The", then weuse "The" if we use the full name, for example:
The Post Publishing Public Co., Ltd
We do not normally use "the" for shops, banks, hotels etc named aftera founder or other person (with -'s or -s). For example:
shops Harrods, Marks & Spencer, Maceys
banks Barclays Bank
hotels, restaurants Steve's Hotel, Joe's Cafe, McDonalds
churches, cathedrals St John's Church, St Peter's Cathedral
We do not normally use "the" with names of places. For example:
towns Washington (not *the Washington), Paris, Tokyo
states, regions Texas, Kent, Eastern Europe
countries England, Italy, Brazil
continents Asia, Europe, North America
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islands Corsica
mountains Everest
Exception!If a country name includes "States","Kingdom","Republic" etc, we use "the":
statesthe United States, the US, the United States of America,the USA
kingdom the United Kingdom, the UK
republic the French Republic
We do not use "the" with "President/Doctor/Mr etc + Name":
the president, theking
President Bush (not*the President Bush)
the captain, the
detective
Captain Kirk, Detective Colombo
the doctor, theprofessor
Doctor Well, Dr Well, Professor Dolittle
my uncle, your aunt Uncle Jack, Aunt Jill
Mr Gates (not*the Mr Gates), Mrs Clinton,Miss Black
Look at these example sentences:
I wanted to speak to the doctor. I wanted to speak to Doctor Brown.
Who was the presidentbefore President Kennedy?
We do not use "the" with "Lake/Mount + Name":
the lake Lake Victoria
the mount Mount Everest
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Look at this example sentence:
We live beside Lake Victoria. We have a fantastic viewacross the lake.
We do not normally use "the" for roads, streets, squares, parks etc:
streets etc Oxford Street, Trenholme Road, Fifth Avenue
squares etc Trafalgar Square, Oundle Place, Piccadilly Circus
parks etc Central Park, Kew Gardens
Many big, important buildings have names made of two words (forexample, Kennedy Airport). If the first word is the name of a personor place, we do not normally use "the":
people Kennedy Airport, Alexander Palace, St Paul's Cathedral
places Heathrow Airport, Waterloo Station, Edinburgh Castle
Proper Nouns with THE
We normally use "the" for country names that include"States","Kingdom", "Republic" etc:
States the United States of America/the USA
Kingdom the United Kingdom/the UK
Republic the French Republic
We normally use "the" for names of canals, rivers, seas and oceans:
canals the Suez Canal
rivers the River Nile, the Nile
seas the Mediterranean Sea, the Mediterranean
oceans the Pacific Ocean, the Pacific
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We normally use "the" for pluralnames of people and places:
people (families, for example) the Clintons
countries the Philippines, the United States
island groups the Virgin Islands, the British Isles
mountain ranges the Himalayas, the Alps
Look at these sentences:
I saw the Clintonstoday. It was Bill's birthday.
Trinidad is the largest island in the West Indies. Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.
We normally use "the" with the following sorts of names:
hotels, restaurants the Ritz Hotel, the Peking Restaurant
banks the National Westminster Bank
cinemas, theatres the Royal Theatre, the ABC Cinema
museums the British Museum, the National Gallery
buildings the White House, the Crystal Palace
newspapers the Daily Telegraph, the Sunday Post
organisations the United Nations, the BBC, the European Union
We normally use "the" for names made with "of":
the Tower of London
the Gulf of Siam
the Tropic of Cancer the London School of Economics
the Bank of France
the Statue of Liberty
Possessive 's
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When we want to show that something belongs to somebody orsomething, we usually add 'sto a singular noun and an apostrophe 'toa plural noun, for example:
the boy's ball(one boy)
the boys' ball(two or more boys)
Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure isinfluenced by the possessor and not the possessed.
one ball more than one ball
one boythe boy's ball the boy's balls
more than one boythe boys' ball the boys' balls
The structure can be used for a whole phrase:
the man next door'smother (the mother of the man nextdoor)
the Queen of England'spoodles (the poodles of the Queen ofEngland)
Although we can use of to show possession, it is more usual to usepossessive 's. The following phrases have the same meaning, but #2 is
more usual and natural:
1. the boyfriend of my sister2. my sister's boyfriend
Proper Nouns (Names)
We very often use possessive 'swith names:
This is Mary's car.
Where is Ram's telephone?
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Who took Anthony's pen?
I like Tara's hair.
When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singularnoun, and add 's:
This is Charles's chair.
But it is possible (especially with older, classical names) to just addthe apostrophe ':
Who was Jesus' father?
I rr egular Plurals
Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man > men). Toshow possession, we usually add 'sto the plural form of these nouns:
singular noun plural noun
my child's dog my children's dog
the man's work the men's work
the mouse's cage the mice's cage
a person's clothes people's clothes
Noun as Adjective
As you know, a noun is a person, place or thing, and an adjective is aword that describes a noun:
adjective noun
clever teacher
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small office
black horse
Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, thefirst noun "acts as" an adjective.
noun
as adjective noun
history teacher
ticket office
race horse
The "noun as adjective" always comes first
If you remember this it will help you to understand what is beingtalked about:
a race horseis a horsethat runs in races a horse raceis a racefor horses a boat raceis a racefor boats
a love storyis a storyabout love
a war storyis a storyabout war
a tennis ballis a ballfor playing tennis tennis shoesare shoesfor playing tennis a computer exhibitionis an exhibitionof computers
a bicycle shopis a shopthat sells bicycles
The "noun as adjective" is singular
Just like a real adjective, the "noun as adjective" is invariable. It isusually in the singular form.
Right Wrong
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boat race boat races NOT boats race, boats races
toothbrush toothbrushes NOT teethbrush, teethbrushes
shoe-lace shoe-laces NOT shoes-lace, shoes-laces
cigarette
packet
cigarette
packets
NOT cigarettes packet, cigarettes
packets
In other words, if there is a plural it is on the real noun only.
A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (forexample news, billiards, athletics). When we use these nouns "asadjectives" they are unchanged:
a news reporter, three news reporters one billiards table, four billiards tables an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers
Exceptions:When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs,accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:
clothes shop, clothes shops
sports club, sports clubs
customs duty, customs duties
accounts department, accounts departments
arms production
How do we write the "noun as adjective"?
We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several differentways:
two separate words (car door)
two hyphenated words (book-case)
one word (bathroom)
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There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations intwo or all three different ways: (head master, head-master,headmaster)
How do we say the "noun as adjective"?
For pronunciation, we usually stress the first word:
shoeshop
boat-race
bathroom
Can we have more than one "noun as adjective"?
Yes. Just like adjectives, we often use more than one "noun asadjective" together. Look at these examples:
car production costs:we are talking about the costs of producingcars
noun asadjective
noun asadjective noun
costs
production costs
car production costs
England football team coach:we are talking about the coach whotrains the team that plays football for England
noun as
adjective
noun as
adjective
noun as
adjective noun
coach
team coach
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football team coach
England football team coach
Note: in England football team coachcan you see a "hidden" "nounas adjective"? Look at the word "football" (foot-ball). These twonouns (foot+ball) have developed into a single noun (football). This isone way that words evolve. Many word combinations that use a "nounas adjective" are regarded as nouns in their own right, with their owndictionary definition. But not all dictionaries agree with each other.For example, some dictionaries list "tennis ball" as a noun and other
dictionaries do not.
government road accident research centre:we are talking about acentre that researches into accidents on the road for the government
noun as
adjective
noun as
adjective
noun as
adjective
noun as
adjective noun
centre
research centre
accident research centre
road accident research centre
government road accident research centre
Newpapers often use many nouns together in headlines to save space.Look at this example:
BIRD HEALTH RESEARCH CENTRE MURDER MYSTERY
To understand headlines like these, try reading them backwards. Theabove headline is about a MYSTERY concerning a MURDER in aCENTRE for RESEARCH into the HEALTH of BIRDS.
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Note, too, that we can still use a real adjectiveto qualify a "noun asadjective" structure:
emptycoffee jar
honestcar salesman
deliciousdog food risingcar production costs famousEngland football team coach
Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. Acompound noun is usually [noun + noun] or [adjective + noun], but
there are other combinations (see below). It is important to understandand recognize compound nouns. Each compound noun acts as a singleunit and can be modified by adjectives and other nouns.
There are three forms for compound nouns:
1. open or spaced - space between words (tennis shoe)2. hyphenated - hyphen between words (six-pack)
3.
closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words(bedroom)
Here are some examples of compound nouns:
noun + noun
bus stopIs this the bus stopforthe number 12 bus?
fire-flyIn the tropics you can seefire-fliesat night.
footballShall we play footballtoday?
adjective + noun
full moonI always feel crazy at fullmoon.
blackboardClean the blackboard
please.
softwareI can't install thissoftwareon my PC.
verb(-ing) + noun breakfastWe always eat breakfastat 8am.
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washingmachine
Put the clothes in the redwashing machine.
swimmingpool
What a beautifulswimming pool!
noun + verb(-ing)
sunrise I like to get up at sunrise.
haircut You need a haircut.
train-spotting
His hobby is train-spotting.
verb + preposition check-outPlease remember thatcheck-outis at 12 noon.
noun +prepositionalphrase
mother-in-law
My mother-in-lawliveswith us.
preposition + noun underworldDo you think the policeaccept money from theunderworld?
noun + adjective truckfulWe need 10 truckfuls of
bricks.
PronunciationCompound nouns tend to have more stress on the first word. In the
phrase "pink ball", both words are equally stressed (as you know,adjectives and nouns are always stressed). In the compound noun"golf ball", the first word is stressed more (even though both wordsare nouns, and nouns are always stressed). Since "golf ball" is acompound noun we consider it as a single noun and so it has a singlemain stress - on the first word. Stress is important in compound
nouns. For example, it helps us know if somebody said "a GREENHOUSE" (a house which is painted green) or "a GREENhouse" (a
building made of glass for growing plants inside).
British/American differences
Different varieties of English, and even different writers, may use theopen, hyphenated or closed form for the same compound noun. It is
partly a matter of style. There are no definite rules. For example we
can find:
container ship container-ship containership
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If you are not sure which form to use, please check in a gooddictionary.
Plural forms of compound nouns
In general we make the plural of a compound noun by adding -s to the"base word" (the most "significant" word). Look at these examples:
singular plural
a tennis shoe three tennis shoes
one assistant headmaster five assistant headmasters
the sergeant major some sergeants major
a mother-in-law two mothers-in-law
an assistant secretary of state three assistant secretaries of state
my toothbrush our toothbrushes
a woman-doctor four women-doctors
a doctor of philosophy two doctors of philosophy
a passerby, a passer-by two passersby, two passers-by
Note that there is some variation with words like spoonful or truckful.The old style was to say spoonsful or trucksful for the plural. Today itis more usual to say spoonfuls or truckfuls. Both the old style(spoonsful) and the new style (spoonfuls) are normally acceptable, butyou should be consistent in your choice. Here are some examples:
old style plural(very formal) new style plural
teaspoonful 3 teaspoonsfulof sugar 3 teasponfulsof sugar
truckful 5 trucksfulof sand 5 truckfulsof sand
bucketful 2 bucketsfulof water 2 bucketfulsof water
cupful 4 cupsfulof rice 4 cupfulsof rice
Some compound nouns have no obvious base word and you may needto consult a dictionary to find the plural:
higher-ups also-rans
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go-betweens
has-beens good-for-nothings
grown-ups
Note that with compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the first nounis like an adjective and therefore does not usually take an -s. A treethat has apples has many apples, but we say an apple tree, not applestree; matchboxnot matchesbox; toothbrushnot teethbrush.
With compound nouns made of [noun + noun] the second noun takesan -s for plural. The first noun acts like an adjective and as you know,adjectives in English are invariable. Look at these examples:
long plural form becomes plural compound noun
[noun + noun]
100 trees with apples 100 apple trees
1,000 cables for telephones 1,000 telephone cables
20 boxes for tools 20 tool boxes
10 stops for buses 10 bus stops4,000 wheels for cars 4,000 car wheels
E.
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun"we include pronouns and noun phrases.)
An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun(a bigdog).
Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinesefood) or aftercertain verbs (Itis hard).
We can often use two or more adjectives together (a beautifulyoungFrenchlady).
It is sometimes said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun. This
is because, very often, if we use the precise noun we don't need an
adjective. For example, instead of saying "a large, impressive house"
(2 adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say "a mansion" (1 noun).
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Determiners
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They aregrammatically similar. They all come at the beginning of noun
phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one determiner in thesame noun phrase.
Articles:
a, an, the
Possessive Adjectives:
my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose
Other determiners:
each, every
either, neither some, any, no much, many; more, most
little, less, least
few, fewer, fewest
what, whatever; which, whichever both, half, all several
enough
A, An or The?
When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "adog"? (On thispage we talk only about singular, countable nouns.)
Theand a/anare called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and"indefinite" like this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
the a, an
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We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular.
We use "indefinite" to mean not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" isgeneral.
When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. Whenwe are talking about one thing in general, we use aor an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky we see 1 moon and millions ofstars. So normally we would say:
I saw themoon last night. I saw astar last night.
Look at these examples:
the a, an
Thecapital of France isParis.
I have found thebook that I
lost. Have you cleaned thecar? There are six eggs in the
fridge.
Please switch off theTVwhen you finish.
I was born in atown.
John had anomelette
for lunch.
James Bond ordered adrink.
We want to buy anumbrella.
Have you got apen?
Of course, often we can use theor a/anfor the same word. It dependson the situation, not the word. Look at these examples:
We want to buy anumbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particularumbrella.)
Where is theumbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We arelooking for our umbrella, a particular umbrella.)
This little story should help you understand the difference betweenthe and a, an:
Aman and awoman were walking in Oxford Street. Thewoman sawadress that she liked in ashop. She asked theman if he could buy
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the dress for her. He said: "Do you think the shop will accept acheque? I don't have acredit card."
My, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose
Warning! These are adjectives. Don't confuse them withpronouns!
We use possessive adjectives to show who owns or "possesses"something. The possessive adjectives are:
my, your, his, her, its, our, their
whose (interrogative)
number person gender
possessiv
e
adjective
exampl
e
sentenc
e
singular
1st male/female my
This is
mybook.
2nd male/female your
I like
your
hair.
3rd
male his
His
name is
"John".
female her
Her
name is
"Mary".
neuter its The
dog is
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licking
itspaw.
plural
1st male/female our
Wehave
sold
our
house.
2nd male/female your
Your
children are
lovely.
3rd
male/female/neut
er their
The
student
s
thanked
their
teacher.
singular/plur
al
1st/2nd/3r
d
male/female (not
neuter)whose
Whosephone
did you
use?
Compare:
your= possessive adjectiveyou're = you are
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its= possessive adjectiveit's = it is ORit has
their= possessive adjectivethey're = they arethere = adverb (I'm not going there / look over there / there is a caroutside)
whose= possessive adjectivewho's = who is ORwho has
Be careful! There is no apostrophe (') in the possessive adjective "its".We use an apostrophe to write the short form of "it is" or "it has". For
example:it's raining = it is rainingit's finished = it has finished
I'm taking my dog to the vet. It's broken itsleg.
Each, Every
Eachand everyhave similar but not always identical meanings.
Each= every one separatelyEvery= each, all
Sometimes, eachand everyhave the same meaning:
Prices go up eachyear.
Prices go up everyyear.
But often they are not exactly the same.
Eachexpresses the idea of 'one by one'. It emphasizes individuality.
Everyis half-way between each and all. It sees things or people assingular, but in a group or in general.
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Consider the following:
Everyartist is sensitive.
Eachartist sees things differently.
Everysoldier saluted as the President arrived.
The President gave eachsoldier a medal.
Eachcan be used in front of the verb:
The soldiers eachreceived a medal.
Eachcan be followed by 'of':
The President spoke to eachof the soldiers. He gave a medal to eachof them.
Everycannot be used for 2 things. For 2 things, eachcan be used:
He was carrying a suitcase in eachhand.
Everyis used to say how often something happens:
There is a plane to Bangkok everyday.
The bus leaves everyhour.
Verbs with eachand everyare always conjugated in the singular.
Some, Any
Some = a little, a few or a small number or amount
Any = one, some or all
Usually, we use somein positive (+) sentences and anyin negative (-)
and question (?) sentences.
some any example situation
+ I have some I have $10.
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money.
-I don't haveanymoney.
I don't have $1 and I don't have $10and I don't have $1,000,000. I have$0.
?Do you haveanymoney?
Do you have $1 or $10 or$1,000,000?
In general, we use something/anythingand somebody/anybodyinthe same way as some/any.
Look at these examples:
He needs somestamps. I must go. I have somehomework to do. I'm thirsty. I want somethingto drink.
I can see somebodycoming.
He doesn't need anystamps. I can stay. I don't have anyhomework to do.
I'm not thirsty. I don't want anythingto drink.
I can't see anybodycoming.
Does he need anystamps?
Do you have anyhomework to do? Do you want anythingto drink? Can you see anybodycoming?
We use anyin a positive sentence when the real sense is negative.
I refused to give them anymoney. (I did notgive them anymoney)
She finished the test without anydifficulty. (she did nothaveany difficulty)
Sometimes we use somein a question, when we expect a positive
YES answer. (We could say that it is not a real question, because wethink we know the answer already.)
Would you like somemore tea?
Could I have somesugar, please?
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Some grammarians do not consider determiners as adjectives, butgive them a class of their own.
Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1.
beforethe noun2. aftercertain verbs(be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound,
smell, taste)
adj. noun verb adj.
1 I like big cars.
2 My car is big.
Adjective Before Noun
We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:
I like big blackdogs.
She was wearing a beautiful long reddress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1. The general order is: opinion, fact:
a nice French car (nota French nice car)
("Opinion" is what you thinkabout something. "Fact" is what isdefinitely trueabout something.)
2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour,material, origin:
a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table
3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are factadjectives:
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articles (a, the)
possessives (my, your...)
demonstratives (this, that...) quantifiers (some, any, few, many...) numbers (one, two, three)
Here is an example with opinionand factadjectives:
adjectives
noundeter-miner
opinionfact
age shape colour
two nice old round red candles
When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with"and":
Many newspapers are blackand white. She was wearing a long, blueand yellowdress.
The rules on this page are for the normal, "natural" order ofadjectives. But these rules are not rigid, and you may sometimes wishto change the order for emphasis. Consider the followingconversations:
Conversation 1A "I want to buy a round table."
B "Do you want a new round table or an old round table?"
Conversation 2A "I want to buy an old table".B "Do you want a round old table or a square old table?"
Adjective After Certain Verbs
An adjective can come aftersome verbs, such as: be, become, feel,get, look, seem, smell, sound
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Even when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, italways refers to and qualifies the subjectof the sentence, not theverb.
Look at the examples below: subject verbadjective
Ram isEnglish.
Because she had to wait, she becameimpatient.
Is itgettingdark? The examination did notseemdifficult. Your friend looksnice. This towelfeelsdamp.
That new film doesn'tsoundvery interesting.
Dinnersmellsgoodtonight. This milk tastessour.
Itsmellsbad.
These verbs are "stative" verbs, which express a state or change ofstate, not "dynamic" verbs which express an action. Note that someverbs can be stative in one sense (she looks beautiful | it got hot), anddynamic in another (she looked at him | he got the money). The above
examples do not include all stative verbs.
Note also that in the above structure (subject verbadjective), theadjective can qualify a pronoun since the subject may be a pronoun.
Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see
if they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in someways and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectivesto describe the differences.
We can use comparative adjectives when talking about twothings
(not three or more things).
In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the
adjective "big":
A1 A2
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A1 is biggerthan A2.
Formation of Comparative Adjectives
There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:
shortadjectives: add "-er" longadjectives: use "more"
Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -yhappy, easy
Normal rule:add "-er" old older
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r late later
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant,vowel, consonant, double the last consonant
big bigger
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change they to i
happy happier
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -ymodern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive,intellectual
Normal rule:use "more"
modern more
modern
expensive moreexpensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or'more':
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quiet quieter/more quiet
clever cleverer/more clever
narrow narrower/more narrow simple simpler/more simple
ExceptionThe following adjectives have irregular forms:
good better well (healthy) better bad worse far farther/further
Use of Comparative Adjectives
We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things).
Often, the comparative adjective is followed by "than".
Look at these examples:
John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is tallerthanJohn.
America is big. But Russia is bigger. I want to have a more powerfulcomputer.
Is French more difficultthan English?
If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare
them as shown in the table below:
Earth Mars
Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790Mars is smallerthanEarth.
Distance from Sun
(million km)150 228
Mars is more distantfrom
the Sun.
Length of day (hours) 24 25A day on Mars is slightlylongerthan a day onEarth.
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Moons 1 2Mars has moremoonsthan Earth.
Surface temperature
(degrees Celcius)
22 -23 Mars is colderthan Earth.
Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about twothings (not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may
be a group of things.
Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains.
Here, we are talking about hundreds of mountains, but we are stillcomparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all othermountains).
Superlative Adjectives
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of aquality. We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality
of one thing in a group of things.
In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of theadjective "big":
A B C
A is the biggest.
We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more
things (not two things).
Formation of Superlative Adjectives
As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form asuperlative adjective:
shortadjectives: add "-est" longadjectives: use "most"
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We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.
Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule:add "-est" old the oldest
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st
late the latest
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant,vowel, consonant, double the last consonant
big the biggest
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, changethe y to i
happy the
happiest
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllablesexpensive,intellectual
Normal rule:use "most"
modern the mostmodernexpensive the
most expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or'most':
quiet the quietest/most quiet
clever the cleverest/most clever narrow the narrowest/most narrow simple the simplest/most simple
ExceptionThe following adjectives have irregular forms:
good the best bad the worst
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far the furthest
Use of Superlative Adjectives
We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group ofthree or more things. Look at these examples:
John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is thetallest.
Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is thebiggest.
Mount Everest is the highestmountain in the world.
If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can usesuperlative adjectives as shown in the table below:
Earth Mars Jupiter
Dia-meter (km)
12,760 6,790 142,800 Jupiter is the biggest.
Dis-tance from Sun(million km)
150 228 778Jupiter is the mostdistantfrom the Sun.
Length of day(hours)
24 25 10Jupiter has theshortestday.
Moons 1 2 16Jupiter has the most
moons.
Surface temp.(degreesCelcius)
22 -23 -150 Jupiter is the coldest.
When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":
England is coldestin winter. (notthe coldest) My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (notthe
most generous)
Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives
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Adjectives describe qualities (characteristics) of nouns.
Some qualities can vary in intensity or grade (for example:rather hot, hot, very hot; hot, hotter, the hottest).
The adjective hotis gradable.
Other qualities cannot vary in intensity or grade because theyare:
a.
extremes (for example: freezing)b. absolutes (for example: dead)c. classifying (for example: nuclear)
The adjectivesfreezing, deadand nuclearare non-gradable.
Gradable Adjectives
A gradable adjective can be used with "grading adverbs" that vary theadjective's grade or intensity. Look at these examples:
grading adverbsa little, dreadfully, extremely,
fairly, hugely, immensely,
intensely, rather, reasonably,
slightly, unusually, very
+
gradable adjectivesangry, big, busy, clever, cold,
deep, fast, friendly, good, happy,
high, hot, important, long,
popular, rich, strong, tall, warm,
weak, young
A gradable adjective can also have comparative and superlativeforms:
EC Tip: "Gradable adjectives" are also called "qualitative adjectives".
"Grading adverbs" are also called "submodifiers".
big, bigger, the biggest hot, hotter, the hottest
important, more important, the most important
Look at these example sentences:
My teacher was very happywith my homework.
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That website is reasonably popular. But this one is morepopular.
He said that Holland was a little coldand Denmark wasrather cold. But Sweden was the coldest.
EC Tip: The adjective deadis non-gradable because it is an absolute.
Dead is dead. We cannot be more or less dead. One person cannot be
"deader" than another. Other absolutes include: correct, unique,
perfect
Non-gradable Adjectives
A non-gradable adjective cannotbe used with grading adverbs:
It was rather freezing outside. The dog was very dead.
He is investing in slightly nuclear energy.
Non-gradable adjectives do not normally have comparative andsuperlative forms:
freezing, more freezing, the most freezing
dead, deader, the deadest
nuclear, more nuclear, the most nuclear
Often, non-gradable adjectives are used alone:
EC Tip: Don't try to learn lists of gradable and non-gradable
adjectives! It's better to understand what makes an adjective gradableor non-gradable. This is a matter of logic and common sense. Most
native-speakers have never heard of gradable and non-gradable
adjectives. They just "feel" that it doesn't make sense to say "fairly
excellent" or "very unique". You probably have the same idea in your
language.
It was freezingoutside.
The dog was dead. He is investing in nuclearenergy.
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However, a non-gradable adjective canbe used with "non-gradingadverbs" (which usually just give the adjective extra impact), forexample:
non-grading adverbs non-gradable adjectives
absolutely awful
extremeutterly excellent
completely terrified
totally dead
absolutenearly impossible
virtually unique
essentially chemical
classifyingmainly digital
almost domestic
Here are some example sentences with non-gradable adjectives:
Her exam results were absolutely awful. She will have to takethe exam again.
Is there anything like it in the world? It must be virtuallyunique.
It starts an essentially chemical reaction.
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Adjectives that can be gradable and non-gradable
Some adjectives may have more than one meaning or sense. It'spossible for the same adjective to be gradable with one sense and non-
gradable with another sense. For example:
adjectivecommon
=
He's got a very oldcar. gradable not young
I saw my oldboyfriend yesterday. non-gradable
former,ex-
He has some dreadfully commonhabits. gradable vulgar
"The" is a very commonword in English. gradable prevalent
The two countries' commonborder poses
problems.
non-
gradableshared
Adverbs used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives
The adverbs really(very much) and fairlyand pretty(both meaning
"to a significant degree, but less than very") can often be used withgradable and non-gradable adjectives:
gradable non-gradable
Please don't forget! It's really
important.He was really terrified.
He's a fairly richman. It's a fairly impossiblejob.
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He's pretty tall.It's pretty ridiculouswhen you
think about it.
"Quite" with gradable and non-gradable adjectives
The meaning of the adverb "quite" changes according to the type ofadjective we use it with:
adjective quite =
It's quite warm today. gradable fairly, rather
Are you quite certain? non-gradable completely, absolutely
Reference
Non-gradable adjectives
Although we don't recommend that you learn lists of non-gradable
adjectives, here are some for reference. You can decide for yourself
whether they are extreme, absolute or classifying.
alive, awful, black, boiling, certain, correct, dead, domestic,
enormous, environmental, excellent, freezing, furious, gigantic, huge,
immediately, impossible, miniscule, mortal, overjoyed, perfect,
pregnant, principal, ridiculous, superb, terrible, terrified, unique,
unknown, white, whole
Non-grading adverbs
Again, no need to learn lists. Here are a few examples. There are
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many more. Remember that you cannot use all non-grading adverbs
with all non-gradable adjectives. Some collocate (go together). Some
don't.
absolutely, almost, completely, entirely, exclusively, fully, largely,
mainly, nearly, perfectly, practically, primarily, utterly, virtually
F.
ADVERBS
Adverbs are an important part of speech. They usually answerquestions such as how?, where?, when?, how often?and how much?
What is an Adverb?
An adverbis a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or"modifies" a verb(The man ranquickly). In the following examples,the adverb is in boldand the verb that it modifies is in italics.
Johnspeaksloudly. (How does John speak?)
Afterwardsshesmokeda cigarette. (When did she smoke?) Mary liveslocally. (Where does Mary live?)
But adverbs can also modify adjectives(Tara is reallybeautiful), oreven other adverbs(It works verywell). Look at these examples:
Modify an adjective:- He is reallyhandsome. (How handsome is he?)- That was extremelykindof you.
Modify another adverb:- She drives incrediblyslowly. (How slowly does she drive?)- He drives extremelyfast.
Note that adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
Modify a whole sentence: Obviously,I can't know everything. Modify a prepositional phrase: It's immediatelyinside the
door.
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Adverb Form
We make many adverbs by adding -lyto an adjective, for example:
quick(adjective) > quickly(adverb) careful(adjective) > carefully(adverb) beautiful(adjective) > beautifully(adverb)
There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See thetable below:
Adjective ending do this adjective adverb
most adjectives add -ly
quicknicesolecareful
quicklynicelysolelycarefully
-able or -ible change -e to -yregrettablehorrible
regrettablyhorribly
-y change -y to -ily happy happily
-icchange -ic to -ically
economic economically
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The wordsfriendly,lovely, lonelyand neighbourly, for example, are all adjectives.
And some adverbs have no particular form. Look at these examples:
well, fast, very, never, always, often, still
Note that the form of an adverb can also change to make itcomparative or superlative.
Kinds of Adverbs
Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs.
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Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which somethinghappens. They answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner
mainly modify verbs.
Hespeaksslowly. (How does he speak?) They helpedus cheerfully. (How did they help us?) James Bond driveshis cars fast. (How does James Bond drive
his cars?)
We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action)verbs,
not with stative or state verbs.
He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily. She looked beautifully. It seems strangely. They are happily.
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They
answer the question "where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.
Pleasesithere. (Where should I sit?)
They lookedeverywhere. (Where did they look?)
Two cars wereparkedoutside. (Where were two carsparked?)
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that somethinghappens. Adverbs of Time mainly modify verbs.
They can answer the question "when?":
He cameyesterday. (When did he come?)
I wantit now. (When do I want it?)
Or they can answer the question "how often?":
They deliverthe newspaper daily. (How often do they deliverthe newspaper?)
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We sometimeswatcha movie. (How often do we watch amovie?)
Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which somethinghappens. They answer the question "how much?" or "to whatdegree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectivesand otheradverbs.
She entirelyagreeswith him. (How much does she agree withhim?)
Mary is verybeautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful?How beautiful is Mary?)
He drove quitedangerously. (To what degree did he drivedangerously? How dangerously did he drive?)
Adverb Position
When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possiblepositions within the sentence or clause:
1. FRONT - before
subjectNow
I will reada
book.
2. MID - between subject
+ verbI often readbooks.
3. END - after verb/objectI read
bookscarefully.
When an adverb modifies an adjectiveor another adverb, it usuallygoes in front of the word that it modifies, for example:
adverb adjective
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She gave him a really dirty look.
adverb adverb
We quite often study English.
The position of an adverb often depends on thekind of adverb(manner, place, time, degree). The following table gives you someguidelines for placement based on the kind of adverb.
Warning: these are guidelines only, and not complete. There are many
exceptions.
kind of
adverb
mainl
y
modif
ies
sentence
usual
positionadverb
manner verbsShestroked
his hairgently. END
place verbs
He was
working here. END
ti
m
e
definit
e
verbs
Hefinished
the job
yester
day.END
freque
ncy
We oftengo to P
aris.
MID
degree verbs, I nearly died. MID
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adjecti
ves
and
adver
bs
It wasterribl
yfunny.
before adj
ective
He works really fast. beforeadverb
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Frequency are Adverbs of Time that answer the question
"How frequently?" or "How often?". They tell us how oftensomething happens. Here are some examples:
a. daily, weekly, yearlyb. often, sometimes, rarely
You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With wordslike dailywe know exactly how often. The words in a) describe
definitefrequency. On the other hand, words like oftengive us anidea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b)describe indefinitefrequency.
We separate them into two groups because they normally go indifferent positions in the sentence.
Adverbs of definite frequency
Examples:
hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
every second, once a minute, twice a year
once, twice, once or twice, three times
Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time,
typically go in END position. Look at these examples:
Most companies pay taxes yearly.
The manager checks the toilets every hour. The directors meet weeklyto review progress.
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Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs ofdefinite frequency may go at the FRONT, for example:
Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads.
Adverbs of indefinite frequency
Examples:
never, seldom, sometimes,often, always
Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly
go in MID position in the sentence.They go beforethe main verb (exceptthe main verb "to be"):
We usuallygo shopping onSaturday.
I have oftendone that.
She is alwayslate.
Occasionally,sometimes, often,frequentlyand usuallycan also go atthe beginning or end of a sentence:
Sometimesthey come and staywith us.
I play tennis occasionally.
Rarelyandseldomcan also go at the end of a sentence (often with"very"):
We see them rarely. John eats meat very seldom.
G. PRONOUNS
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use apronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours,themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would haveto repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
100% always, constantly
usually, normally
frequently, regularly
often
50% sometimes
occasionally
rarely, infrequently
seldom
hardly ever
0% never
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Do you like the president? I don't like the president. Thepresident is too pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:
Do you like the president? I don't like him. Heis toopompous.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use themdepending on:
number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we) person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person
(eg: he)
gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)
We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we aretalking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I
almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking directto you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talkingabout another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use"he" or "him". And so on.
Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:
number person gender
personal pronouns
subject object
singular
1st male/female I me
2nd male/female you you
3rd
male he him
female she her
neuter it it
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plural
1st male/female we us
2nd male/female you you
3rd male/female/neuter they them
Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun,the second an object pronoun):
Ilike coffee. John helped me.
Do youlike coffee? John loves you.
Heruns fast. Did Ram beat him?
Sheis clever.
Does Mary know her?
Itdoesn't work. Can the engineer repair it?
Wewent home. Anthony drove us.
Do youneed a table for three? Did John and Mary beat youat doubles?
Theyplayed doubles.
John and Mary beat them.
When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it.However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to ananimal as he/himor she/her, especially if the animal is domesticatedor a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as somecountries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Hereare some examples:
This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation.
The Titanicwas a great ship but shesank on her first voyage.
My first car was a Mini and I treated herlike my wife.
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Thailand has now opened herborder with Cambodia.
For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use heorshe. There are several solutions to this:
If a teacher needs help, he or sheshould see the principal. If a teacher needs help, heshould see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, theyshould see the principal.
We often use itto introduce a remark:
Itis nice to have a holiday sometimes. Itis important to dress well.
It's difficult to find a job. Is itnormal to see them together? Itdidn't take long to walk here.
We also often use itto talk about the weather, temperature, time anddistance:
It's raining.
Itwill probably be hot tomorrow. Isit nine o'clock yet?
It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.
Demonstrative Pronouns
demonstrate(verb): to show; to indicate; to point to
A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:
near in distance or time (this, these)
far in distance or time (that, those)
near far
singular this that
plural these those
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Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed byan illustration:
Thistastes good.
Have you seen this?
Theseare bad times. Do you like these?
Thatis beautiful.
Look at that! Thosewere the days! Can you see those?
Thisis heavier than that. Theseare bigger than those.
Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrativeadjectives. They are identical, but a demonstrative pronoun standsalone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.
Thatsmells. (demonstrative pronoun)
That bookis good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)
Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we canuse them for people when the person is identified. Look at theseexamples:
Thisis Josef speaking. Is thatMary?
Thatsounds like John.
Possessive Pronouns
We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people orthing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (andsometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:
number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
person: 1st person (eg:mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rdperson (eg: his)
gender: male (his), female (hers)
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Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some examplesentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can:
be subject orobject
refer to a singular orplural antecedent
number person gender (of "owner") possessive pronouns
singular
1st male/female mine
2nd male/female yours
3rd
male his
female hers
plural
1st male/female ours
2nd male/female yours
3rd male/female/neuter theirs
Look at these pictures. Mineis the big one. (subject = Mypicture)
I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)
I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but Icouldn't find yours. (object = your key)
My flowers are dying. Yoursare lovely. (subject = Yourflowers)
All the essays were good but hiswas the best. (subject = hisessay)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object =her passport)
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John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object =her clothes)
Here is your car. Oursis over there, where we left it. (subject= Our car)
Your photos are good. Oursare terrible. (subject = Ourphotos)
Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yoursare red. (subject= Your books)
I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject =your garden)
These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirshave black hair.(subject = Their children)
John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object= their car)
Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's,
your's, their's
Notice that theinterrogative pronoun whosecan also be a possessivepronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at theseexamples:
There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whoseit was. This car hasn't moved for two months. Whoseis it?
Interrogative Pronouns
We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogativepronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are askingthe question about).
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what,
which
Notice that thepossessive pronoun whosecan also be an interrogativepronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).
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subject object
person who whom
thing what
person/thing which
person whose (possessive)
Notice that whomis the correct form when the pronoun is the object
of the verb, as in "Whomdid you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in
normal, spoken English we rarely use whom. Most native speakers
would say (or even write): "Whodid you see?"
Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the nounphrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.
question answer
Whotold you? Johntold me. subject
Whomdid you tell? I told Mary. object
What's happened? An accident's happened. subject
Whatdo you want? I want coffee. object
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Whichcame first?The Porsche 911came
first.subject
Whichwill the doctor see
first?
The doctor will see the
patient in bluefirst.object
There's one car missing.
Whosehasn't arrived?
John's (car)hasn't
arrived.subject
We've found everyone's keys.
Whosedid you find?I found John's (keys). object
Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compoundsfrom some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever,whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to
show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples: