Atlas Frango de Corte

7/31/2019 Atlas Frango de Corte

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Figura 01; Figura 02

Descrio clnica

Com a ave em decbito dorsal, as paredes do trio direito e o

ventrculo so posicionados na parte superior. Aps a morte, os

trios, muitas vezes expandir-se com sangue e pode

aparecer bastante alargada. Os vasos grandes pode ser visto

entrando na base do corao. O msculo do corao deve

ser marrom-avermelhada na cor. Uma quantidade varivel

de gordura estar presente nas ranhuras coronrias. Se o

pssaro est abatido, essa gordura pode estar ausente ou

sofreram atrofia serosa, resultando em uma

aparncia gelatinosa molhado. Olhar para quaisquer leses

externas sobre a superfcie do epicrdico do corao ou

na gordura circundante.

Figura 03

Descrio clnicaO msculo do corao deve ser marrom-avermelhada nacor. Uma quantidade varivel de gordura estar presente nasranhuras coronrias. Se o pssaro est abatido, essagordura pode estar ausente ou sofreram atrofia serosa,resultando em uma aparnciagelatinosa molhado. Olhar paraquaisquer leses externas sobre a superfcie do epicrdio docorao ou na gordura circundante.

Figura 04

Descrio clnica


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Ver do lado esquerdo do corao.

Figura 05

Descrio clnica

Vista do pice do corao.

Figura 06

Descrio clnica

A parte inferior 1/3 do pice do corao foi removido. Este

ponto de vista permite que a espessura das

paredes ventriculares e septo de ser avaliada. A parede do

ventrculo direito livre deve ser aproximadamente 1/3 a 1/2 a

espessura do septo intraventricular eda parede ventricular

esquerda livre. No corao normal, o lmen

dos ventrculos deve ser pequena e no deve

haver espao insignificante entre as paredes do ventriculae eosepto. Nas doenas cardacas, como hipertenso pulmonar

ou defeitos congnitos, este espao ser ampliado.

Figura 07


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Descrio clnicaNesta perspectiva, as cmaras do trio direito eoventrculo foram abertas por meio de corte at a parede livre doventrculo direito. Uma vez aberta, a

vlvula atrioventriculardireita e endocrdio so expostos. Afolha septal da valva direita normalmente muito musculoso.

Figura 08

Descrio clnica

Nesta perspectiva, as cmaras do trio esquerdo e o

ventrculo foram abertas por meio de corte at a parede livre do

ventrculo esquerdo. A valva atrioventricular esquerda

geralmente fina e lisa.

Figura 09

Descrio clnica

A aorta foi aberta atravs da insero de tesoura sob a valva

atrioventricular esquerdae corte para cima. O lmen normal

da aorta, como visto aqui, branco cremoso e os folhetos

da vlvula artica so uniformes e muito finas.

Figura 10

Descrio clnica

O fgado separado em um lobo direito e esquerdo, conforme

visto aqui, ligado na base. O lobo heptico direito


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ligeiramente maior que o esquerdo e as margens hepticas

devem chegar a uma borda fina crocante.

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Clinical Description

In domestic birds, the left lobe has a fissure running along its

surface, dividing it into 2 parts.

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The liver is separated into a right and left lobe, as seen here,

attached at the base. The right hepatic lobe is slightly larger

than the left and the liver margins should come to a thin crisp

edge.

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The overall size of the liver is variable, often extending beyond

the edge of the sternum. To identify hepatomegaly, look at the


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liver margins. Blunted or thickened margins are a sign of an

enlarged liver.

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Healthy hepatic parenchyma should be somewhat firm on

palpation and have a smooth and glistening appearance. The

color of the liver can vary depending on the nutritional state of

the bird. Generally, the liver is reddish-brown but it can be light

brown or even slightly yellow, depending on the fat content in

the diet. However, a very yellow liver is an abnormal finding,

except in chicks between 1 to 5 days of age.

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Healthy hepatic parenchyma should be somewhat firm on

palpation and have a smooth and glistening appearance. The

color of the liver can vary depending on the nutritional state ofthe bird. Generally, the liver is reddish-brown but it can be light

brown or even slightly yellow, depending on the fat content in

the diet. However, a very yellow liver is an abnormal finding,

except in chicks between 1 to 5 days of age.

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The gallbladder is located on the visceral surface of the right

hepatic lobe.

It is normally dark green in color, due to the bile located within

the lumen of this thin-walled structure. During autolysis, bile

pigments may leak out of the gallbladder, staining the adjacent

hepatic tissues yellow to green. This bile inbibition is a normal

part of autolysis and should not be confused with a lesion.

Similar staining can also occur in the ascending duodenum,

adjacent to the area where the bile and pancreatic ducts empty.

The size of the gallbladder is variable and may be enlarged in

birds that are off-feed.

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The gallbladder is located on the visceral surface of the right

hepatic lobe.

It is normally dark green in color, due to the bile located within

the lumen of this thin-walled structure. During autolysis, bilepigments may leak out of the gallbladder, staining the adjacent

hepatic tissues yellow to green. This bile inbibition is a normal

part of autolysis and should not be confused with a lesion.

Similar staining can also occur in the ascending duodenum,

adjacent to the area where the bile and pancreatic ducts empty.

The size of the gallbladder is variable and may be enlarged in

birds that are off-feed.


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View of the liver on cross section. As seen here, the color and

texture should be uniform. Focal or regional changes may

indicate a lesion. Its normal for a small amount of blood to

ooze from the cut surface of the liver

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The lungs are tightly adhered to the dorsal rib cage. Their colorshould be bright pink in a fresh bird but will become increasinly

more congested, wet, and dark red with autolysis, as seen here.

To assess the lungs, do not over-interpret their color but rather,

use a combination of visual inspection and palpation to assess

the health of this tissue.

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The air sacs are thin membranes distributed throughout the

body. In a fresh healthy bird, air sacs should be transparent but,as seen here, the membranes will become slightly cloudy after


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death. In over-conditioned birds, fat may be present on the air

sac membranes. Inflammation of the air sacs can result in

thickened membranes, opacities, or fibrin deposition. Fluid,

foam, or exudate can accumulate between the air sac

membranes.

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The proventriculus is the glandular stomach that lies between

the esophagus and the gizzard. It is lined with mucosal glands

that secrete digestive enzymes important in food break down.

On close inspection, these glands can be seen through the

serosal surface, giving it a honeycomb-like texture. On

palpation the proventriculus should feel turgid and, its surface

should be shiny tan. Look for abnormalities such as

hemorrhagic lesions or neoplastic infiltrates on its surface

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The serosa of the proventriculus is normally shiny, tan, and has

a fine vascular pattern. In a fresh bird, on close inspection, the

glands can be visualized through the mucosa. The muscular

wall of the proventriculus should feel uniformly turgid.

Flaccidity or dilatation of the organ might indicate an improper

diet or feeding program, infection, or neuromusculardysfunction.


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The external features of the ventriculus, or gizzard, should

consist of alternating bands of dark red and light red smooth

muscles, forming a roughly circular shape.

These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat, as seenhere. On palpation, the gizzard should be extremely firm.

Thinning or laxity in the muscles may indicate inflammation, an

improper diet or feeding program, or neuromuscular problems.

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The proventriculus in situ.

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The serosa of the proventriculus is normally shiny, tan, and has

a fine vascular pattern. In a fresh bird, on close inspection, theglands can be visualized through the mucosa. The muscular

wall of the proventriculus should feel uniformly turgid.

Flaccidity or dilatation of the organ might indicate an improper

diet or feeding program, infection, or neuromuscular

dysfunction.


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These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat. Onpalpation, the gizzard should be extremely firm. Thinning or

laxity in the muscles may indicate inflammation, an improper

diet or feeding program, or neuromuscular problems.

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View of the serosal surface of the proventriculus and gizzard

(ventriculus).

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Close-up of the glands of the proventriculus as seen throughthe outer wall.

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View of the glands of the proventriculus as seen from the

mucosal surface.

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Close-up view of the glands of the proventriculus as seen from

the mucosal surface.

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The contents of the proventriculus can vary from mucoid and

creamy to more formed pieces of ingesta, depending on howrecently the bird ate.

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View of the serosal surface of the proventriculus and gizzard

(ventriculus).

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These muscles may be covered by a thick layer of fat, as seen

here.

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View of the left side of the proventriculus and gizzard.

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The consistency of the gizzard contents will vary depending on

the stage of digestion. Generally, it contains fibers and portions

of seeds. Additionally, small pebbles, ingested to facilitate the

break up of food, may also be present

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The mucosa of the gizzard is covered by a sturdy layer of

protein called koilin, which aids in food digestion. The koilin

layer should be smooth and uniform.


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The color may vary from white, to yellow, to green depending

on the diet and the degree of bile staining.

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Close-up view of the koilin layer of the gizzard (ventriculus).

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The spleen is located dorsal to the gizzard.

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On very close inspection, the spleen as a slight stippled pattern.

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View of the cut section of the spleen. On cross section, the

spleen may appear slightly granular due to the variations in red

and white pulp.

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The duodenum has a descending and ascending loop,

arranged in a U-shape.

The loops are held together by a thin strip of mesentery and

surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine can

vary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of thebird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usually

pink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval

increases, the intestinal walls will become congested, as seen

here, and eventually, even a healthy loop of bowel may appear

dark red. However, if the serosa has a dull granular

appearance, this can be evidence of inflammation.

The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightlyyellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident.

Swelling of the pancreas can be recognized if the organ

extends beyond its normal location between the loops of the

duodenum.

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The walls of the duodenum should be smooth and uniform and

offer little resistance to incision. In the proximal duodenum, the

ingesta is normally mucoid and pale tan to yellow. Distal to the

bile ducts, the ingesta becomes more green in color.

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surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine canvary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of the

bird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usually

pink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval





The normal appearance of the pancreas is pale red or slightly

yellow. On close inspection, its glandular nature is evident.



duodenum.

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surround the pancreas. The appearance of the intestine can

vary greatly depending on the post-mortem condition of the

bird. In a fresh bird, the serosa of a healthy intestine is usuallypink, smooth, and glistening. As the post-mortem interval








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duodenum.

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duodenum.

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On close inspection, the pancreas has a fine glandular texture.

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After 10 days of age, the only remnant of the yolk sac is a small

tag of scar tissue, called Meckels diverticulum. This tag,

located on the antimesenteric side of the intestine, contains

lymphoid tissue and is part of the GALT, or Gut Associated

Lymphoid Tissue. Meckels diverticulum is also an

important anatomical landmark, as it is located at the junction

between the jejunum and the ileum. Being able to differentiatethe jejunum from the ileum is important to generating

differentials for intestinal diseases. Some infections, such as

coccidiosis, have a predilection for the jejunum and other

diseases target the ileum.

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After 10 days of age, the only remnant of the yolk sac is a small

tag of scar tissue, called Meckels diverticulum. This tag,

located on the antimesenteric side of the intestine, contains

lymphoid tissue and is part of the GALT, or Gut Associated

Lymphoid Tissue. Meckels diverticulum is also an

important anatomical landmark, as it is located at the junction

between the jejunum and the ileum. Being able to differentiate

the jejunum from the ileum is important to generating

differentials for intestinal diseases. Some infections, such as

coccidiosis, have a predilection for the jejunum and other

diseases target the ileum.

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At the junction between the ileum and the descending colon,

are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domestic

poultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over

themselves, with their apices pointing caudally. The walls

should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenish-colored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls

are opaque, thin or irregular, infection should be suspected.

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are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domesticpoultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over


should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenish-

colored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls


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At the base of the ceca, near the junction of the ileum and the

descending colon, are 2 important lymphoid structures called

cecal tonsils. The tissue here bulges outward slightly as it is

thicker and slightly more granular.

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At the base of the ceca, near the junction of the ileum and the

descending colon, are 2 important lymphoid structures called

cecal tonsils. The tissue here bulges outward slightly as it is

thicker and slightly more granular.

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As demonstrated here, the cecal tonsils should be opened and

the mucosa examined closely. This is a common location for

lesions to be detected. In inflammatory or neoplastic diseases,

the tonsils may be come enlarged and mottled red and tan. In

some viral infections, the lymphoid tissue may become necrotic,

causing the tonsils to become red.

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The cecal tonsil has been opened to show the mucosa. Its

important to examine this area closely for lesions. Ininflammatory or neoplastic disease, the cecal tonsils may

become enlarged and mottled red and tan. In some viral

infections, this lymphoid tissue may become necrotic, causing

the tonsils to become red.

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As demonstrated here, the cecal tonsils should be opened and

the mucosa examined closely. This is a common location for

lesions to be detected. In inflammatory or neoplastic diseases,

the tonsils may be come enlarged and mottled red and tan. In

some viral infections, the lymphoid tissue may become necrotic,

causing the tonsils to become red.

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The serosa of the ileum should be shiny, tan, and smooth, with

no thickening or bulges. Be careful not to over-interpret the

color of the intestinal walls as post-mortem congestion and

autolysis can quickly turn the intestinal walls red or black.

Because the intestinal walls are semi-translucent, look for areas

of proliferation or mucosal exudate which can sometimes be

visualized through the intestinal wall.


are two blind-ended sacs known as the ceca. In domesticpoultry, the cecae are large structures that bend over


should be thin and semi-translucent, allowing the greenish-

colored intestinal contents to be visualized within. If the walls


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The quality of intestinal ingesta can yield important clues about

the functional status of the intestines. If the ingesta is normal,

as seen here, regardless of the appearance of the intestinal

wall, the intestines were likely functioning normal at the time of

death. If the content is abnormal, intestinal dysfunction is

present. Keep in mind that as the ingesta moves though theintestines, its color and consistency will change. In the jejunum,


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pictured here, the ingesta becomes slightly thicker and yellow

tan in color.

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Distal to the ceca, the intestines continue as a short straight

tube known as the descending colon. These walls should be

smooth and uniform. Look for any dilatations which may

indicate an obstruction due to a mechanical blockage, a scar, or

another disease process.

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The cloaca is the common chamber for the gastrointestinal,

urinary, and reproductive tracts. Here the cloaca has been

opened. By the time ingesta enters the cloaca, it should have

the normal color and consistency of feces and will be mixed

with urates from the urinary system.

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On the dorsal wall of the cloaca is a diverticulum called the

Bursa of Fabricius.

This structure is an important lymphoid organ. The shape of the

bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pearshaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped.

The size varies with the age of the bird. It typically reaches its

maximum size between 4 to 12 weeks of age, at which time it

can weigh up to 4 grams. Normally, the bursa begins to involute

when the bird is approximately 3 months of age. By the time the

bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident on

gross examination.


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Bursa of Fabricius.


bursa varies with species. In the chicken, it is roughly pear

shaped. In ducks, geese and turkeys it is more spindle shaped.





bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident ongross examination.

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Bursa of Fabricius.








bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident ongross examination.

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Bursa of Fabricius.


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bird reaches sexual maturity, it may no longer be evident on

gross examination.

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The bursa of Fabricius has been opened to show its mucosal

surface. The normal mucosa consists of many folds of tissue,

which are pale white to pink or tan and slightly firm on

palpation.

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The vent, located just beneath the tail, is the external orifice of

the urinary, genital and gastrointestinal systems. The normal

vent is free of fecal and urate staining, swelling, redness, or

evidence of trauma.

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This image shows the normal ovary of a sexually immature

female, approximately 10 weeks of age. Here, the ovary is small

and inactive.

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View of the dorsal aspect of the ribs. Note that the ventral ribs

have been removed from the field.

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The kidneys consist of a right and left chain, with each chain

being made up of 3 lobes. The lobes are tightly embedded in

the bone of the synsacrum. They are normally red to dark

mahogany brown in color and have a slightly granular texture.

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This image shows a detailed view of the normal texture of the

kidneys.

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The nerves should have a creamy-white color and a slightlystriated texture on close inspection. This image shows a normal

ishiadic plexus in the caudal coelomic cavity.

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The thyroid glands should be smooth, oval, and reddish-brown

in color. On very close inspection, the thyroid glands have avery fine granular appearance.

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A properly formed beak, shown here, is bilaterally symmetrical

and the upper and lower halves should form a smooth line

where they articulate.


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A properly formed beak is bilaterally symmetrical and the upper

and lower halves should form a smooth line where they

articulate. Nutritional imbalances may result in beakmalformations. The color of the beak depends on the birds

coloration, with lighter birds typically having yellow beaks.

However, beak color can also be influenced by physiologic

factors. For example, yellow pigment in the beak may be lost as

the chicken produces more eggs.

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The oropharynx should be examined for any lesions. Note that

birds do not have a soft palate or a discrete boundary between

the oral cavity and the pharynx. The color of the oral mucosa

will vary with lighter birds tending to have a pink mucosa while

darker birds will have more pigment. Look for ulcers, erosions,

opacities, diptheritic nodules, or other lesions.

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A birds tongue is supported by the hyobranchial apparatus,

making it somewhat inflexible.

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The color of the oral mucosa will vary with the overall coloration

of the bird. However, the mucosa should be free of ulcers,

erosions, opacities, diptheritic nodules, and other lesions.

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The dorsal surface of the chicken tongue should be smooth and

pink. There is a row of large papillae near the caudal

attachment of the tongue. Inspect the tongue for any lesions

such as ulcers or nodules.

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The dorsal surface of the chickens tongue is smooth and

there is a row of large papillae near the caudal attachment.

When inspecting the tongue, look for ulcers and erosions.

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On the roof of the oropharynx is a fissure, called the choana,

which opens into the nasal cavity. Inspect the area around the

choana for ulcers. The choana is also a good place to find

respiratory exudate. Birds do not form liquid pus and inspusated

exudate tends to accumulate in the choanal orifice. If exudate is

present, you can collect a swab sample from the choana. The

choana is surrounded by ridges and rows of sharp well-

demarcated papillae that point caudally. A variety of diseases

can damage the papillae, resulting in blunting.

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Just caudal to the choana is the infundibular cleft. This is the

opening to the Eustachian tube and it is surrounded by ridges

and rows of sharp well-demarcated papilla that point caudally.

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The tongue, esophagus, and trachea have been removed as

one unit. This view allows the structures of the structures of the

caudal oral cavity and pharynx to be examined more closely.

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The tongue, esophagus, and trachea have been removed as

one unit. This view allows the structures of the caudal oral

cavity and pharynx to be examined more closely.

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The esophagus runs down the length of the neck and, in

domestic species, is interrupted by a diverticulum called the

crop. The esophagus continues down the neck and empties into

the proventriculus. The esophagus and crop are thin-walled and

located just below the skin. Their outer surfaces should be pale

tan and smooth.

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The esophagus runs down the length of the neck and, in

domestic species, is interrupted by a diverticulum called the

crop. The esophagus continues down the neck and empties into

the proventriculus. The esophagus and crop are thin-walled andlocated just below the skin. Their outer surfaces should be pale

tan and smooth.

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The mucosal surface of the esophagus should be smooth and

glistening.


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The cranial portion contains many glands and the caudal

portion has numerous longitudinal folds. The color along the

entire length should be pale tan to pink.

The presence of proliferative lesions may indicate a viralinfection or a dietary imbalance.

You can gently wash away any food material from the walls of

the crop with some water but do not scrape the mucosa. Food

material should wash away easily while fibrin and exudate will

stick to the mucosa. Look for ulcers and erosions, which appear

as red or pale depressions in the mucosa.

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The caudal portion of the normal esophagus has numerous

longitudinal folds, as seen here.

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The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale pink

to tan or white and the external surface should be smooth.

Upper respiratory disease may produce tracheal lesions thatare sometimes visible on the outer surface. Look for

discoloration, nodules, or irregularities in the tracheal cartilages.

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The trachea is a thin tube completely encircled by small

cartilagenous rings.

The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale tan to

white and the external surface should be smooth. Look for


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The trachea is a thin tube completely encircled by cartilagenous

rings. The trachea should be uniform in color, ranging from pale

pink to tan or white and the external surface should be smooth.

Upper respiratory disease may produce tracheal lesions that

are sometimes visible on the outer surface. Look for


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At the terminal end of the trachea lies the syrinx, a flattened

area at the junction of the trachea and the primary bronchi. The

syrinx is responsible for generating vocal sounds.

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Since the diameter of the syrinx is significantly smaller than that

of the trachea, examine this area closely for occlusions caused

by exudate, fungal mats, or parasites.

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Since the diameter of the syrinx is significantly smaller than that

of the trachea, examine this area closely for occlusions caused

by exudate, fungal mats, or parasites.

95

View of the inside lumen of the trachea.

96

The left jugular vein of the bird, seen here, is much larger than

the right.

97

The left jugular vein of the bird, seen here, is much larger than

the left. The vagal and glossopharyngeal nerves are closely

associated with the veins.

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The vagal and glossopharyngeal nerves run parallel with the

jugular veins.

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The thyroid glands are located on each side of the neck, medial

to the jugular vein and cranial to the origin of the subclavian and

common carotid arteries.

100

The glands should be smooth, oval, and reddish-brown in color.

On very close inspection, the thyroid glands have a very fine

granular appearance.

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Just caudal to the thyroid glands are the small pale pink

parathyroid glands. The right parathyroid gland, seen here, lies

directly adjacent to the right thyroid gland.

The left parathyroid gland is slightly separated from the left

thyroid gland.

102

The thymus is a bilateral chain of structures, located in the

lateral neck region. each side is composed of 4 to 7 lobes. In

chickens less than 17 weeks of age, the thymus should be

visible but normally regresses around the time of sexual

maturity.

103

The lobes of the thymus, normally present only in immature

birds, are pale tan to pink in color.


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104

The avian brain has a smooth surface, with no gyri or sulci. Its

cortex should appear smooth and glistening and the right and

left sides should be symmetrical.

105

This image shows a detailed view of the surface of the normal

cerebrum.

106

The 3 muscles involved in flight in the bird, called the pectoral

muscles, lie on either side of the keel bone. These muscles are

very large, making them ideal for body muscle assessment. The

muscles should be smooth and have a relatively uniform

texture.

107

The pectoral muscles can be removed from the keel and ribs in

order to examine them more closely. Look for areas of necrosis,

inflammation, or hemorrhage.

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With the muscles removed, look for areas of necrosis,

inflammation, or hemorrhage. A series of parallel cuts through

the muscle bellies can facilitate this assessment.

109


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The eyelids should be free of swelling or exudate from ocular

discharge.

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The eyelids should be free of swelling or exudate from ocular

discharge.

111

The cornea should be clear and convex and the sclera white.Iris color will vary with the breed and color of the bird however,

look for abnormalities of the iris such as redness, anterior

synechia, or exudate in the anterior chamber. The shape of the

iris and pupil should be uniform and round.

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The conjunctiva is a mucous membrane. It should be light pink

in color and free of any redness, swelling, or exudate.

113

The eye has been removed from the skull showing the full

extent of the orbit.

114

The ears in the bird are simple ostea, with no external pinna.

The openings should be free of swelling, exudate, or other

material.


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115

The comb and wattles are outgrowths of skin that are highly

vascularized, making them a useful way to assess the bird's

overall health. They are normally bright red but their color willquickly fade after death. However, they should remain firm and

uniform on palpation. look for abnormalities such as edema,

petechiae, necrosis, cyanosis, papules and ulcers.

116

The infraorbital sinuses are triangular-shaped cavities, locatedrostroventral to the eyes. The sinuses are air-filled lumens, with

one opening into the nasal cavity and the other into the caudal

nasal cavity.

117

As seen here, the legs bones of the should be straight andsymmetrical.

118

The leg bones should be straight and symmetrical. Palpate the

bones for fractures and calluses and the joints for swelling or

effusion. Flex and extend all the joints to assess range ofmotion, keeping in mind the effects of rigor mortis.

119

The skin on the limbs is covered by scales that are normally

dry, flat, and slightly overlapping. Some parasites live beneath


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the scales of the legs. Some infectious diseases can cause

keratinous outgrowths from this skin.

120

The skin on the limbs is covered by scales that are normally

dry, flat, and slightly overlapping. Some parasites live beneath

the scales of the legs. Some infectious diseases can cause

keratinous outgrowths from this skin.

121

Digital pads cover the plantar surface of the birds feet.

These pads are composed of thick skin and adipose tissue. In

the center of the foot, there is a large central metatarsal pad.

The pads should be soft, free of scabs, swellings, edema,

hemorrhages, or other lesions.

122

In the center of the foot, there is a large central metatarsal pad.

The pads should be soft, free of scabs, swellings, edema,

hemorrhages, or other lesions.

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In birds housed on the floor, claws will normally come to a blunt

tapered end, as seen here. Claws may be somewhat sharper in

birds housed in cages. Curling or fraying claws are abnormal

findings.

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Birds have several types of feathers distributed across various

regions of their body including down, body feathers, and flight

feathers. Look for abnormalities in feather conformation such as

warping or malformed barbs and barbules.

Make note of any body regions that are missing feathers.

Feathers are normally distributed along tracks on the body,

called pterylae. These tracks are interspersed with featherless

tracts called apteria. Keep in mind, that not all feather loss is

abnormal. Seasonal feather molting is a normal physiologic

process. Additionally, females who are incubating eggs may

have an area on their abdomen lacking feathers, called the

brood patch. In non-pathologic feather loss, the skin will appear

healthy. In cases of pathologic feather loss, such as excessive

feather picking by the bird, or its cage mates, the skin will be

traumatized.

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This image shows a typical down feather.

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The skin in the chicken is normally very thin and the amount of

pigment varies from pink to black, depending on the coloration

of the bird. The skin should be free of exudate and have little or

no scale. Look for any lesions or evidence of ectoparasites.

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Feathers are normally distributed along tracks on the body,

known as pterylae, seen here. These tracks are interspersed

with featherless areas called apteria. Patches of feather lossmay be due to normal physiologic processes, such as seasonal


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molting. Pathologic feather loss can result from trauma and

infection and is associated with skin lesions.

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Pay attention to the feather sheath, the area where the feather

emerges from the follicle. Swelling in this location can be

indicative of several types of infection.

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Pay attention to the feather sheath, the area where the feather

emerges from the follicle. Swelling in this location can be

indicative of several types of infection.

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The uropygial, or preen gland, is located dorsal to the base ofthe tail. This cutaneous gland secretes an oily substance that

birds spread over their feathers during preening. These

secretions help maintain normal healthy feathers.

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The body of the gland is located subcutaneously and its twolobes can sometimes be visualized beneath the skin, as seen

here. The glands duct exits externally through a small

papilla. Infected glands may result in swelling and reddening of

the surrounding skin.

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Cartilage should be smooth, shiny, and white with a slightly blue

tinge, as seen here. Look for degenerative changes and

roughed, discolored areas.

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In a young bird, cut the long bone of the leg lengthwise to

examine the epiphysis. Nutrient or mineral deficiencies can lead

to poor mineralization of the bone. Look for widening of the

epiphyseal plate or generalized hypoplasia of the bone.

Atlas Frango de Corte

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