Antineutro phil Cy to p las mic An ti bod ies (ANCA): Di ...

Antineutrophil Cy to plas mic An ti bod ies (ANCA): Di ag nos tic

Util ity and Po ten tial Role in the Pathogenesis of Vasculitis

Branko Malenica, Marija Rudolf, Ana Kozmar

Di vi sion of Im mu nol ogy, Clin i cal In sti tute of Lab o ra tory Di ag no sis, Zagreb Uni ver sity Hos pi tal Cen ter, Zagreb, Croatia

Cor re spond ing au thor:

Branko Malenica, MD, PhD

Di vi sion of Im mu nol ogy

Clin i cal In sti tute of Lab o ra tory Di ag no sis

Zagreb Uni ver sity Hos pi tal Cen ter

Kišpatiæeva 12

10000 Zagreb, Croatia

b_malenica@ya hoo.com

Re ceived: 22.07.2004.

Ac cepted: 18.09.2004.

IN TRO DUC TION

Antineutrophil cy to plas mic an ti bod ies (ANCA)

are a het er o ge neous group of cir cu lat ing an ti bod ies

di rected to ward the cy to plas mic con stit u ents of

neutrophil gran ules and monocytes. ANCA were

first de scribed in 1982 by Davies et al. in a few pa -

tients with seg men tal necrotizing glomerulone -

phritis (1,2). The im por tance of this ob ser va tion had

not been rec og nized un til 1985, when a dis tinct

gran u lar cy to plas mic flu o res cence pat tern, first

called ACPA (anticytoplasmic an ti bod ies) and later

termed C-ANCA (cy to plas mic), was shown to be

as so ci ated with Wegener¢s granulomatosis (WG)

(3). Later, a sec ond ANCA flu o res cence pat tern

(later called perinuclear, P-ANCA) was de scribed in

pa tients with mi cro scopic polyangiitis (MPA) (4) and

in pa tients with the id io pathic form of pauci-im mune

necrotizing cres cen tic glomerulonephritis (iNCGN)

(5). These data have now been con firmed by many

groups and sup port the view that ANCA-as so ci ated

vasculitis and glomerulonephritis are in deed a dis -

tinct dis ease cat e gory (6-11). Sub se quently, a third,

less clearcut ANCA sub type (later termed ‘atyp i cal’

or very perinuclear, a/P-ANCA) was de scribed in a

wide range of con nec tive tis sue dis eases (CTD),

inflammatory bowel (IBD) and autoimmune liver

diseases, and infectious diseases (8-13).

To day the var i ous ANCA serve as use ful

seromarkers. They can be used as clin i cal tools to

aid in the di ag no sis of WG and to dis tin guish new

en ti ties within the large spec tra of vasculitis/glome -

294

Acta Dermatovenerol Croat 2004;12(4):294-313 RE VIEW

SUM MARY Antineutrophil cy to plas mic an ti bod ies (ANCA) are a het er o ge -neous group of cir cu lat ing an ti bod ies di rected to ward the cy to plas mic con stit u -ents of neu tro phils and monocytes. ANCA have been de scribed in var i ous dis -eases in clud ing id io pathic sys temic vasculitides, con nec tive tis sue dis eases,in flam ma tory bowel dis eases, au to im mune liver dis eases, in fec tious dis eases, and some drugs. ANCA rec og nize dif fer ent tar get an ti gens such as proteinase3 (PR3-ANCA), myeloperoxidase (MPO-ANCA), cathepsin G, lactoferrin, bac -te ri cidal/per me abil ity-in creas ing pro tein (BPI), and some oth ers. How ever,only PR3-ANCA and MPO-ANCA are closely as so ci ated with sys temic vascu li -tides, in par tic u lar Wegener¢s granulomatosis, mi cro scopic polyangiitis and itsre nal lim ited man i fes ta tion, and Churg-Strauss syn drome. Both in vi tro and invivo ex per i men tal data strongly sup port a patho genic role for ANCA in vasc -ulitis and glomerulonephritis.

KEY WORDS ANCA; PR3-ANCA; MPO-ANCA; vasculitis; pathogenesis

ru lo nephritis and chronic in flam ma tory bowel and

liver dis eases. Re cent stud ies sup port the hy poth e -

sis that ANCA and their tar get an ti gens may be im -

pli cated in the pathogenesis of these dis eases, at

least in vasculitis (7-11,14-20).

In this re view we will eval u ate back ground in for -

ma tion about the evo lu tion of ANCA meth od ol ogy,

the di ag nos tic ap pli ca tion of ANCA test ing, and the

cur rent un der stand ing of the patho genic role of dif -

fer ent sub types of ANCA. We also dis cuss ANCA in

the con text of cutaneous vasculitis.

ANCA TEST METH OD OL OGY AND

THEIR TAR GET AN TI GENS

Cur rently, three ba sic as say prin ci ples are ap -

plied for the de tec tion of ANCA. The orig i nal me -

thod of ANCA de tec tion is in di rect immunofluores -

cence (IIF) (21). While it re mains the most widely

used method, it does not iden tify the spe cific an ti -

gen re spon si ble for the ANCA immunofluorescen -

ce. En zyme-linked immunosorbent as say (ELISA)

is used for tar get-spe cific ANCA de ter mi na tion (22).

There are two pop u lar types of such solid-phase as -

says. The tar get an ti gen can be coated di rectly onto

the plas tic re ac tion well (stan dard ELISA), or it can

be linked to the re ac tion well via tar get an ti gen-spe -

cific mouse monoclonal or rab bit polyclonal an ti -

bod ies (cap ture ELISA or sand wich ELISA) (23).

Other de tec tion meth ods such as radioimmunoas -

say (RIA), immunoblotting (IB) or immunoprecipita -

ti on tech niques are not widely used for routine

ANCA testing (24).

ANCA are rou tinely de tected by IIF on eth a -

nol-fixed neu tro phils (21,25,26). Re cent con sen sus

state ments on test ing and re port ing of ANCA rec og -

nize four dif fer ent flu o res cence pat terns: a coarse

gran u lar cy to plas mic flu o res cence with ac cen tu a -

tion be tween the nu clear lobes – clas sic cy to plas -

mic or C-ANCA (Fig. 1A, e, f); a typ i cally perinuc lear

flu o res cence with some nu clear ex ten sion (Fig. 1B,

e) and gran u lar cy to plas mic flu o res cence on for ma -

lin-fixed neu tro phils (Fig. 1B, f) – perinuclear or

P-ANCA; pro nounced nu clear rim flu o res cence

with min i mal nu clear ex ten sion, cen ter of nu cleus

un stained (Fig. 1C, e) and non-re ac tiv ity with for -

ma lin-fixed neu tro phils (Fig ure 1C; f) – very peri -

nuclear or ‘atyp i cal’ a/P-ANCA; and atyp i cal ANCA

which in clude all other IIF re ac tiv ity, most com -

monly a com bi na tion of cy to plas mic and perinucle -

ar fluorescence (not shown).

The char ac ter is tic C-ANCA pat tern has been

rec og nized as a char ac ter is tic stain ing pat tern pro -

duced by the sera of most pa tients with WG, but

also of some 50% of pa tients with MPA and a mi nor -

ity of pa tients with other necrotizing vasculitis or id -

io pathic NCGN (27). Dif fer en ti at ing the clas sic

gran u lar cy to plas mic flu o res cence pat tern with in -

ter lob u lar ac cen tu a tion (C-ANCA) from dif fuse flat

cy to plas mic flu o res cence pat tern with out in ter lob u -

lar ac cen tu a tion (C-ANCA-atypical) pattern may at

times be difficult.

P-ANCA were orig i nally de scribed in pa tients

with id io pathic and/or vasculitis as so ci ated NCGN

(5). Fur ther stud ies showed that the P-ANCA pat -

tern could also be pro duced by the sera from pa -

tients with vasculitis with out re nal in volve ment and

pa tients with IBD, au to im mune liver dis ease, in fec -

tious dis eases such as HIV in fec tion, and very

rarely con nec tive tis sue dis ease (CTD) such as

sys temic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheu ma -

toid ar thri tis (RA) (11,12). The perinuclear pat tern

ACTA DERMATOVENEROLOGICA CROATICA 295

Malenica et al: Acta Dermatovenerol Croat

ANCA: Di ag nos tic and Patho genic Po ten tial 2004;12(4):294-313

A

B

C

f

C-ANCA C-ANCA

P-ANCA P-ANCA

e

e

f

f

a / P-ANCA neg

ee

Fig ure 1. Char ac ter is tic flu o res cence pat terns of anti -

neutrophil cy to plas mic an ti bod ies (ANCA) on eth a nol (e)

and paraformaldehyde (f) fixed hu man neutrophil cytospin

prep a ra tions. (A) a coarse finely gran u lar flu o res cence

pres ent through out the cy to plasm and with ac cen tu a tion

be tween nu clear lobes (e and f)-cy to plas mic-C-ANCA;

(B) a typ i cally perinuclear flu o res cence with some nu clear

ex ten sion (e) and a gran u lar cy to plas mic flu o res cence on

for ma lin fixed neu tro phils (f)-perinuclear-P-ANCA ; (C) a

prononuced nu clear rim flu o res cence, cen ter of nu cleus

un stained, with out the nu clear ex ten sion (e) and neg a tive

flu o res cence on for ma lin fixed neu tro phils (f) -"atyp i cal"

perinuclear -a/P-ANCA or very perinuclear P-ANCA.

can not al ways be dis tin guished from the nu clear

stain ing pat tern. Thus, dis crim i na tion be tween anti -

nuclear an ti bod ies (ANA) and P-ANCA is not pos si -

ble in most sera that are ANA pos i tive when iso lated

eth a nol-fixed neu tro phils are used as a sub strate.

In fact, an ti bod ies re act ing with nu clei of granu lo -

cytes only, and not with those of other sub strates,

have been de tected in pa tients with RA long be fore

ANCA had been de scribed, and were named gra -

nu lo cyte-spe cific antinuclear an ti bod ies (GS-ANA).

Re cent stud ies, how ever, have shown that the

P-ANCA flu o res cence pat tern rep re sents an ar ti fact

of eth a nol fix a tion which al lows for re ar range ment

of pos i tively charged gran ule con stit u ents around

and on the neg a tively charged nu clear mem brane

(28). The use of crosslinking fix a tives, such as pa -

rafo rmaldehyde, dur ing the prep a ra tion of neutro -

phil sub strates pre vents the perinuclear re ar range -

ment of charged an ti gens and thereby al lows for

dis tinc tion of true P-ANCA from ANA with or with out

granulocyte spec i fic ity. On for ma lin-fixed neu tro -

phils, true P-ANCA will dis play dif fuse gran u lar cy -

to plas mic stain ing, whereas an ANA-con tain ing se -

rum sam ple will again dis play nu clear stain ing. The

si mul ta neous test ing for ANA using standard sub -

strates, such as HEp-2 cells, is not sufficient for this

dis tinc tion because P-ANCA and ANA can occur

simultaneously.

‘Atyp i cal’ P-ANCA with dif fer ent fre quency were

found in pa tients with IBD, au to im mune liver dis -

eases and in fec tious dis eases such as HIV in fec -

tion (11,12). Dis tinc tion be tween these two P-ANCA

sim i lar flu o res cence pat terns is pos si ble on for ma -

lin-fixed neu tro phils where the ‘atyp i cal’ P-ANCA

pat tern dis plays non-re ac tiv ity, whereas true P-

ANCA dis play dif fuse gran u lar cytoplasmic staining

(Fig. 1).

IIF should be per formed on se rum sam ples from

all ‘new’ pa tients, since about 10% of ANCA-pos i -

tive se rum sam ples in pa tients with WG or MPA can

be dem on strated only by IIF.

To cir cum vent the prob lems as so ci ated with IIF,

i.e. the lack of tar get an ti gen spec i fic ity and op er a -

tor de pend ence, tar get an ti gen-spe cific solid-phase

immunoassays have been used. ELISA and IB

tech niques en able iden ti fi ca tion of many tar get an ti -

gens that are as so ci ated with autoantibodies caus -

ing dif fer ent immunofluorescence pat terns (Ta ble

1). The tar get an ti gen rec og nized by most C-ANCA

pos i tive sera has been iden ti fied as proteinase 3

(PR3), a neu tral serine pro te ase pres ent in the

azurophilic gran ules of neu tro phils. Proteinase 3

has been cloned and shown to be a 29 kD glyco -

protein of 228 aminoacids (29-33). Hu man an ti bod -

ies to PR3 ap pear to rec og nize conformational de -

ter mi nants on the mol e cule (34). Very rarely, sera

with PR3-ANCA re ac tiv ity can also cause P-ANCA

flu o res cence pat tern (35). Myeloperoxidase (MPO)

rep re sents the P-ANCA tar get an ti gen with the

great est clin i cal util ity be cause of the fre quent as so -

ci a tion of MPO-ANCA with MPA and iNCGN (36).

All se rum sam ples should be as sayed in PR3-

ANCA and MPO-ANCA ELISAs, since about 5% of

se rum sam ples are pos i tive only by ELISA. How -

ever, many sera that pro duce P-ANCA or a/P-ANCA

stain ing pat tern on eth a nol-fixed neu tro phils do not

con tain autoantibodies to MPO or PR3 as tested by

an ti gen-spe cific as says. It has now been rec og -

nized that a num ber of these sera con tain an ti bod -

ies to other gran u lar con stit u ents of neu tro phils. In

par tic u lar, autoantibodies have been dem on strated

to hu man leu ko cyte elastase (HLE) (37,38), cathe -

psin G (CG) (39-42), lactoferrin (LF) (43-46), lyso -

zyme (47), azurocidin (48), a-enolase (49-51), actin

(52-54), tropomyosin (53, 54), high mo til ity groups

of nonhistone chro mo somal pro teins 1 and 2

(HMG1 and HMG2) (55-57), bac te ri ci dal/ per me a -

296 ACTA DERMATOVENEROLOGICA CROATICA



Ta ble 1. Tar get an ti gens for antineutrophil cy to -plas mic an ti bod ies (ANCA)

ANCA target antigen Immunofluorescence pattern

PR3 C-ANCA, very rarely P-ANCA

MPO P-ANCA, very rarely C-ANCA

Eosinophylic peroxidase a/C-ANCA

HLE P-ANCA

a-Enolase P-ANCA

Azurocidin P-ANCA

Cathepsin G P-ANCA

Lactoferrin P-ANCA

Lysozyme P-ANCA, a/C-ANCA

Actin a/C-ANCA, a/P-ANCA

Tropomyosin a/C-ANCA, a/P-ANCA

HMG1/2 P-ANCA

BPI a/C-ANCA, a/P-ANCA

Lamin B1 a/P-ANCA

Histone H1 a/P-ANCA

bi l ity- in creas ing protein (BPI) (58-61), lamin B1 (13,

47) and histone H1 (13,62).

DI AG NOS TIC UTIL ITY OF ANCA

TEST ING

Since the first de scrip tion of ANCA, the dif fer ent

ANCA flu o res cence pat terns have been de scribed

in var i ous dis eases. In ad di tion to sys temic vascu -

litides, this list now in cludes var i ous CTDs, IBD, au -

to im mune liver dis eases, in fec tions, ma lig nan cies,

myelodysplastic pro cesses and many oth ers, even

di a be tes mellitus. The in ter pre ta tion of many re -

ports is com pro mised by lim ited in for ma tion about

the meth ods uti lized for ANCA de tec tion. Re ports

that in clude data on dif fer ent flu o res cence pat terns

and spe cific tar get an ti gens al low for more mean -

ing ful analysis of clinical as so ci a ti ons and utility.

ANCA in pri mary sys temic vasculitides

The most clear-cut as so ci a tion of a dis ease with

ANCA di rected against a spe cific tar get an ti gen re -

mains the as so ci a tion be tween WG and PR3-

ANCA (Ta ble 2). Be tween 80% to 95% of all ANCA

found in WG are C-ANCA (8,12,63-65). The use of

more sen si tive PR3-ANCA spe cific meth ods (cap -

ture ELISA) of de tec tion has con firmed that the

C-ANCA in WG is al most al ways as so ci ated with

anti-PR3 (23,66). It has been es ti mated that

5%-20% of ANCA in WG may be P-ANCA, which

are mostly di rected against MPO (67,68) and only

rarely against other known tar get an ti gens such as

hu man leu ko cyte elastase (69). The sen si tiv ity of

C-ANCA/PR3-ANCA for WG is re lated to the ex tent,

se ver ity and ac tiv ity of dis ease (64). In a meta-anal -

y sis of C-ANCA in WG, the pooled sen si tiv ity was

91% for the sub set of pa tients with ac tive dis ease

com pared to 63% for those with in ac tive dis ease

(70). Some lon gi tu di nal stud ies have shown that

titers of C-ANCA/PR3-ANCA cor re late with clin i cal

dis ease ac tiv ity (71-74), al though this has been dis -

puted by other au thors (75,76). Ad di tion ally, dis -

ease re lapse can be an tic i pated and pre vented by

in ten si fy ing immunosuppression in re sponse to ris -

ing titers (76,77). Per sis tent or intermittent C-ANCA

positivity is an independent risk factor for relapse

(78-81).

Most pa tients with MPA are ANCA pos i tive, ei -

ther with spec i fic ity for MPO or for PR3 (5,11,12,64,

67). The in ter pre ta tion of data about the as so ci a tion

of ANCA and MPA is com pli cated by the lack of con -

sen sus about the def i ni tion of MPA. Since there

con tin ues to be con tro versy about which fea tures

clearly sep a rate MPA from PAN, it re mains un clear

whether ANCA also oc cur in some pa tients with

clas sic PAN (82). How ever, most data sup port the

per cep tion that MPA, which is fre quently as so ci ated

with GN and/or pul mo nary capillaritis, is of ten as so -

ci ated with MPO-ANCA, whereas clas sic PAN is not

(64,83,84). The re la tion be tween titers of ANCA and

dis ease ac tiv ity has not been studied systematically

in MPA (70,78,80,85).

Other tar get an ti gens for ANCA, such as BPI

and azurocidin, have re cently been de tected in pa -

tients with sys temic vasculitis (48,58,60,86). These

an ti bod ies may also si mul ta neously oc cur with

PR3- or MPO-ANCA.

Most pa tients with iNCGN are pos i tive for

anti-MPO, the re main ing gen er ally be ing pos i tive

for anti-PR3 (5,11,12,68,87). Many of these pa -

tients have con sti tu tional symp toms to gether with

signs of sys temic in volve ment so that the dis tinc tion

be tween WG, MPA and iNCGN is far from absolute.

ANCA have been de tected with vari able fre -

quency in pa tients with CSS (88-90). Both MPO

and PR3 have been de scribed as tar get an ti gens.

Al though Ig-A-ANCA have oc ca sion ally been

noted in Henoch-Schönlein purpura (91-93), most

stud ies have not shown this to be a sig nif i cant as so -

ci a tion with re gard to ei ther fre quency or clin i cal

fea ture of illness (94).

Pa tients with Kawasaki dis ease may have

ANCA and antiendothelial cell an ti bod ies (AECA)

but these an ti bod ies oc cur in the mi nor ity of pa -




Ta ble 2. Dis ease as so ci a tions of C-ANCA (PR3- ANCA) and P-ANCA (MPO-ANCA) in sys temic vas -cu litis

Patients Sensitivity of

with C-ANCA PR3-ANCA P-ANCA MPO-ANCA

WG 80-90 85 5-20 24

MPA 35-45 26 40-50 58

iNCGN 30-40 50 46-65 58

CSS 14-33 33 33-42 50

PAN 3-10 0 5-30 38

tients and do not oc cur more of ten than in other pe -

di at ric fe brile illneses (95,96).

Other forms of vasculitis, par tic u larly gi ant cell

arteritis, Takayasu arteritis and Behcet¢s dis ease,

are not ANCA-as so ci ated (97,98).

ANCA in con nec tive tis sue dis eases(CTD)

ANCA have been de scribed in pa tients with a

va ri ety of CTD, in clud ing RA (99-104), SLE (105-

107), PM/DM (108), ju ve nile chronic ar thri tis (109),

re ac tive ar thri tis (110,111), re laps ing chondritis

(112,113) and anti-phospholipid syn drome (108).

ANCA in scleroderma is un com mon and is of doubt -

ful clin i cal sig nif i cance (114,115). The flu o res cence

pat terns in CTD are mostly P-ANCA. To a lesser ex -

tent, atyp i cal flu o res cence pat terns may be found,

and true C-ANCA pat terns are rare (108,116). A

mul ti tude of tar get an ti gens, in clud ing LF, HLE, LZ,

CG, MPO, HMG1 and HMG2, have been de scribed

in these dis eases (Ta ble 3). How ever, a sig nif i cant

pro por tion of tar get an ti gens for ANCA en coun tered

in this set ting re main to be iden ti fied. PR3-ANCA

occur extremely rarely in these patients (116).

While pa tients with CTD have an in creased fre -

quency of vasculitis, data to sug gest that ANCA

positivity en hances the risk of vasculitis are con tra -

dic tory (108,116). Non-vasculitis as pects of rheu -

matic dis ease ac tiv ity, se ver ity and chronicity also

fail to con sis tently cor re late with ANCA sta tus

(100,102,103,108,116). Con se quently, there is lit tle

clin i cal util ity for ANCA test ing in pa tients with CTD

in whom one of the ANCA-as so ci ated sys temic

vasculitides is not suspected.

ANCA in in flam ma tory bowel dis ease(IBD) and au to im mune liver dis eases

Shortly af ter the dis cov ery of ANCA in WG and

MPA, ANCA were dis cov ered in IBD and au to im -

mune liver dis eases (13,117-125). On IIF these

ANCA pro duce perinuclear and less of ten atyp i cal

cy to plas mic flu o res cence pat terns. MPO is not a

prom i nent tar get an ti gen for these P-ANCA (Ta ble

4). A mul ti tude of other tar get an ti gens, par tic u larly

LF, CG, actin, BPI, catalase and HMG1/2, have

been iden ti fied as tar get an ti gens in IBD (13,39-

41,45,126-128). Data from most se ries sug gest that

the prev a lence of P-ANCA is higher in ul cer ative co -

li tis (40%-80%) than in Crohn¢s dis ease (10%-

40%). Some stud ies have sug gested a higher as so -

ci a tion of ANCA in pa tients with Crohn¢s dis ease

and co lonic in volve ment (129,130), treat ment-re -

sis tant left-sided ul cer ative co li tis (131) or chronic

pouchitis (132,133). The over lap of ANCA find ings

be tween the var i ous clin i cal groups of IBD pa tients

is sig nif i cant. There fore, ANCA test ing does not fa -

cil i tate the dif fer en tial di ag no sis of pa tients with

IBD. Nei ther is the cor re la tion of titers with dis ease

activity sufficiently reliable to be useful for mon i tor -

ing IBD activity (13,123,124,129).

ANCA are also fre quently found in pa tients with

pri mary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and au to im -

mune hep a ti tis type 1 (50%-90%). ANCA are gen er -

ally not as so ci ated with pri mary biliary cir rho sis




Ta ble 3. Tar get an ti gens of ANCA in con nec tive tis -sue dis eases (CTD)

Patients Target antigens in ELISA (%)

with PR3 MPO LF CG HMG1/2

SLE 0 1 11 37 37/18

RA 0 1 35 33 40/25

SS 0 0 0 22 44/11

SSc 0 18 5 5 36/18

PM/DM 0 0 27 9 18/18

SLE=systemic lupus erythematosus; RA=rheumatoid arthritis;SS=Sjögren’s syndrome; SSc=systemic sclerosis;PM/DM=polymyositis/dermatomyositis; PR3=proteinase 3;MPO=myeloperoxidase; LF=lactoferrin; CG=cathepsin G;HMG1/2=high mobility group (HMG) nonhistone chromosomalproteins 1 and 2

Ta ble 4. Tar get an ti gens of ANCA in pa tients within flam ma tory bowel and au to im mune liver dis e -ases

Patients Target antigen in ELISA (%)

with MPO LF CG Actin BPI Catalase HMG1/2

UC 2-29 5-50 0-1 NT 43 38 32

CD 0-6 1-21 0-2 NT 26 26 26

PBC NT NT NT NT 25 NT NT

PSC 0-33 0/50 NT NT 35 NT NT

AIH type 1 NT 8 0 47-52 29 NT NT

UC=ulcerative colitis; CD=Crohn’s disease; PBC=primary biliarycirrhosis; PSC=primary sclerosing cholangitis; AIH=autoimmunehepatitis; BPI=bactericidal/permeability increasing protein;HMG1/2=high mobility group (HMG) nonhistone chromosomalproteins 1 and 2; NT=not tested

(13,121,122,134-136). ANCA re ac tiv ity in au to im -

mune hep a ti tis type 1 most of ten ap pears to be di -

rected to actin (13,54,136).

ANCA in in fec tious dis eases

ANCA, mainly with ‘atyp i cal’ cy to plas mic or P-

ANCA immunofluorescence pat terns, have been

de scribed in hu man im mu no de fi ciency vi rus (HIV)

in fec tion (137,138), cys tic fi bro sis with bac te rial air -

way in fec tions (139,140), chromomycosis (141),

acute ma laria (42,142), in va sive amebiasis (143),

and in pa tients with some other in fec tions (144,

145). These ANCA are not caused by an ti bod ies

against PR3 and MPO. A re cent re port has de -

scribed the oc cur rence of BPI-IgG-ANCA and BPI-

IgA-ANCA in the ma jor ity of pa tients with cys tic fi -

bro sis (146). Anti-BPI titers were di rectly re lated to

the se ver ity of air way de struc tion. Cathepsin G has

been iden ti fied as the most sig nif i cant tar get an ti -

gen for ANCA, caus ing an atyp i cal cy to plas mic flu o -

res cence pat tern in pa tients with acute ma laria

(42,142). In va sive amebiasis is the only in fec tion

that has been re ported to be as so ci ated with PR3-

ANCA (143). The pres ence of autoantibodies caus -

ing cy to plas mic flu o res cence on eth a nol-fixed neu -

tro phils from pa tients with in fec tion shows the im -

por tance of ex clud ing in fec tious pro cesses be fore

ini ti at ing immunosuppressive ther apy. These ob -

ser va tions may sug gest that ANCA, which oc cur

tran siently in the set ting of in fec tion, and the per sis -

tent ANCA in pa tients with vasculitis may be the re -

sults of mo lec u lar mim icry in sus cep ti ble hosts

(147). Sub se quent di ver si fi ca tion of T- and B-cell

re sponses (‘epitope spread ing’) may lead to re -

sponse against dif fer ent epitopes on the same

target molecule (intramolecular spreading) or may

extend to other molecules (intermolecular spread -

ing) (148,149).

ANCA as so ci ated with drugs

In creas ing num bers of case re ports and re ports

of small se ries have iden ti fied as so ci ated dis eases

that are pre sumed to be in duced by cer tain drugs

with ANCA re ac tiv ity. The fol low ing drugs have

been con nected to au to im mune clin i cal se quels

and ANCA: hydralazine-in duced lupus with anti-

MPO and elastase an ti bod ies, hydralazine-as so ci -

ated vasculitis with anti-MPO and anti-LF an ti bod -

ies and minocycline-in duced ar thri tis, fe ver, and li -

ve do reticularis with anti-MPO an ti bod ies (150-

156). Vasculitis oc cur ring af ter propylthiouracil ther -

apy has been as so ci ated with ANCA specificities to

sev eral dif fer ent tar get an ti gens, including PR3,

MPO and elastase (152,153,157-160).

Di ag no sis of cu ta ne ous man i fes ta tions

of We ge ner¢s granulomatosis (WG)

and mi cro scopic po ly angiitis (MPA)

WG and MPA are the pro to type sys temic dis -

eases as so ci ated with ANCA. Cu ta ne ous le sions

may oc cur in up to one-half of pa tients with WG (Ta -

ble 5) (161-163). In gen eral, cu ta ne ous le sions are

more likely in pa tients who have mul ti ple or gan sys -

tem in volve ment. Cu ta ne ous le sions may also be

the first man i fes ta tion of WG and may not be

vasculitic. Pa tients may de velop cu ta ne ous le sions

be fore the on set of up per air way or pul mo nary or re -

nal symp toms, mak ing the di ag no sis of WG very dif -

fi cult for der ma tol o gist. Some pa tients may de velop

more than one type of cu ta ne ous le sions, which

may change over time or with treat ment. In or der to

best uti lize lab o ra tory test ing for ANCA, it is es sen -

tial to rec og nize the cu ta ne ous pat terns of WG and

MPA, and, more im por tant, to rec og nize those dis -

or ders that can sim u late cu ta ne ous le sions seen in

WG (Ta ble 6). Spe cific le sions are de fined as be ing

di rectly re lated to WG and not as the re sults of in -

fec tion, drug sen si tiv ity or other de fin able causes

other than WG. The most com mon spe cific man i -

fes ta tion of cu ta ne ous WG are pal pa ble purpura

and ul cer ation with the histopathologic cor re la tion

of leukocytoclastic vasculitis (LCV), most of ten

with out granuloma for ma tion, and with a histo -




Ta ble 5. Char ac ter is tic in volve ment of Wegener’sgranulomatosis by or gan/system

Organ/system %

Upper airway 90-95

Pulmonary 54-85

Pulmonary hemorrhage 5-15

Glomerulonephritis 51-80

Gastrointestinal >5

Ocular 35-52

Nervous system 20-50

Cardiac 8-16

Cutaneous lesions 15-50

patho logic cor re late of acute and/or granulomatous

in flam ma tion, re spec tively. Many other di ag nos tic

en ti ties with cu ta ne ous man i fes ta tions are to be

con sid ered on the dif fer en tial di ag no sis of WG (Ta -

ble 6). Di ag nos tic al go rithm for cu ta ne ous WG in -

cludes care ful clin i cal ex am i na tion and clin i cal

patho logic cor re la tion to con firm the di ag no sis (Ta -

ble 7). Test ing of ANCA may play a sig nif i cant role in

the eval u a tion of pa tients sus pected to have sys -

temic vasculitis or an other ill ness with pre sen ta tion

sim i lar to WG. Only a pos i tive C-ANCA (IIF) with a

pos i tive PR3-ANCA (ELISA) re sult, and a pos i tive

P-ANCA (IIF) with a pos i tive MPO-ANCA (ELISA)

re sult are sen si tive and spe cific for WG and MPA.

Re peat ANCA test ing is war ranted to fol low the

course of the dis ease in pa tients who have proven

WG or MPA as ANCA lev els cor re late loosely with

dis ease ac tiv ity and re lapses in the ab sence of

ANCA are rare. A pa tient with LCV and other cu ta -

ne ous find ings sug ges tive of WG with a pos i tive

C-ANCA/PR3-ANCA or P-ANCA/MPO-ANCA test

result should be followed carefully for subsequent

development of systemic disease manifestations

even if there is no sign of internal organ involvement

at the time of initial presentation.

DE VEL OP MENT OF ANCA AND THEIR

ROLE IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF

VASCULITIS

In ter ac tion of ANCA with their tar getan ti gens

PR3-ANCA are able to in hibit en zy matic ac tiv ity

of na tive and re com bi nant PR3 by bind ing near the

cat a lytic do main (164). Anti-PR3 an ti bod ies pre vent

the in ac ti va tion of PR3 by its nat u ral in hib i tor alfa-1

antitrypsin (a1-AT) (165). The in hib i tory ac tiv ity dif -

fers be tween sera and is not di rectly re lated to the

amount of spe cific an ti body. In a lon gi tu di nal study it

has been shown that dis ease ac tiv ity in pa tients

with WG cor re lates with the amount of in hib i tory ac -

tiv ity of the se rum rather than with the ti ter of

PR3-ANCA (166). Like wise, MPO-ANCA may in ter -

fere with bind ing of MPO to its nat u ral in hib i tor ceru -

loplasmin (167). This suggets that es cape of the en -

zyme from its inactivation may contribute to the in -

flam ma tory process.

The phenotypic ex pres sion of a1-AT is highly

poly mor phic: se verely, me dium and non-de fi cient

pro teinase in hib i tor phe no types can be dis tin -

guished (168,169). The prev a lence of ANCA of di -

verse spec i fic ity was re mark able among a pop u la -

tion with the se verely de fi cient phe no type (170).

These data sug gest that de fi cient a1-AT ac tiv ity is

involved in the induction of ANCA.

In ter ac tion of ANCA with en do the lialcells

As men tioned above, the an ti gens rec og nized

by MPO-ANCA and PR3-ANCA are con stit u ents of

gran ules from myeloid cells and are thought to be

spe cific for cells of the monomyeloid lin eage. Re -




Ta ble 6. Di ag nos tic en ti ties with cu ta ne ous man i -fes ta tions to be con sid ered on dif fer en tial di ag no -sis of cu ta ne ous Wegener’s granulomatosis

Leukocytoclastic or granulomatous vasculitis

Pyoderma gangrenosum

Neutrophilic dermatoses

Infection (bacterial, fungal, mycobacterial)

Infestation (e.g., amebiasis)

Malignancy (lymphoma, lymphomatpoid granulomatosis, leukemia cutis)

Cutaneous Crohn’s disease

Drug reactions (including hydralazine and minocycline)

Panniculitis (alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, erythema nodosum)

Connective tissue syndromes (inclusive of SLE)

Acneiform lesions

Rheumatoid nodules/papules

Granuloma annulare

Calciphylaxis

Ta ble 7. Di ag nos tic al go rithm in dif fer en tial di ag no -sis of cu ta ne ous Wegener’s granulomatosis

Characteristic clinical findings (purpura, ulcerations, nodules, etc.)

Biopsy for routine microscopy and special stains for microorganisms

Biopsy for tissue culture*

Serologic tests including ANCA (IIF and ELISA)

Longitudinal follow up of ANCA

*Recommended in the majority of cases if histopathology or clinicalfindings may also be compatible with infectious cause.ANCA-antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies; IIF-indirectimmunofluorescence; ELISA-target antigen-specific solid-phaseassay

cent stud ies have dem on strated, how ever, that

PR3 can be ex pressed in other cell types as well, in

par tic u lar in re nal car ci noma cells (171) and hu man

en do the lial cells (172). These cells, primed by

cytokines (TNF-a, IL-1, IFN-g), ex press PR3 in their

cy to plasm and cell sur face mak ing PR3 avail able

for in ter ac tion with ANCA. Oth ers have not been

able to show en do the lial PR3 ex pres sion (173).

MPO and PR3 are cationic pro teins and as such

may bind to an ionic struc tures such as the glo mer u -

lar base ment mem brane (GBM) and the sur face of

en do the lial cells. It has, in deed, been shown that

ANCA can bind to cul tured hu man en do the lial cells

in cu bated with MPO (174). Un der these con di tions,

anti-MPO can in duce com ple ment-de pend ent en -

do the lial cell lysis. In vi tro in cu ba tion of en do the lial

cells with PR3 in duces pro duc tion of IL-8, en do the -

lial cell apoptosis, and de tach ment and lysis of the

en do the lium (175-177). Al though these in vi tro

stud ies have dem on strated that ANCA can in ter act,

di rectly or in di rectly, with en do the lial cells, di rect

immunofluorescence stud ies from lesional tis sue

have failed to show sig nif i cant de po si tion of IgG

along the en do the lium or the glo mer u lar cap il lary

wall. Thus, the in vivo rel e vance of those in vitro

studies has yet to be established.

ANCA-me di ated neutrophil andmonocyte ac ti va tion

In vi tro ac ti va tion of neu tro phils by PR3- and

MPO-ANCA re quires prior prim ing of cells by low

doses of proinflammatory cytokines, such as

TNF-a, IL-1b or LPS. Prim ing is as so ci ated with

translocation of ANCA tar get an ti gens on the sur -

face of neu tro phils, which makes them ac ces si ble

for in ter ac tion with an ti bod ies (178-180). ANCA

(anti-PR3 or anti-MPO), bound to ap pro pri ately dis -

played tar get an ti gens, have been shown to en -

hance neutrophil ox i da tive burst and degranulation

(178,179,181,182). Re leased neutrolytic en zymes

may pro duce tis sue in jury by means that in clude in -

duc tion of en do the lial cell apoptosis, de tach ment

and cytolysis (176,177,183,184). In ad di tion, they

se crete in flam ma tory me di a tors such as TNF-a,

IL-1, IL-8 and leukotriene B4 (185,186). Upon ac ti -

va tion by ANCA, PMN ex press in creased lev els of

ad he sion mol e cules, in clud ing b2-integrins, that fa -

cil i tate bind ing to and transmigration through the

endothelial monolayer (187,188).

The pre cise mech a nism un der ly ing ANCA-in -

duced neutrophil ac ti va tion is un clear. It ap pears

that neutrophil ac ti va tion in volves both spe cific

bind ing of the an ti bod ies via F(ab¢)2-frag ments to

sur face ex pressed PR3 or MPO and in ter ac tion of

their Fc-frag ments with FcgR on neu tro phils, par tic -

u larly with FcgRIIa-re cep tor (189,190). Very re -

cently, it has been shown that li ga tion of FcgRIIa

and FcgRIIIb is nec es sary for ANCA-in duced

neutro phil ac ti va tion, but that sig nal ing cas cades by

ANCA were dif fer ent from the sig nal path ways used

by FcgR engagement only (191).

The ef fect of ANCA on monocytes has been

stud ied to a lesser ex tent. ANCA have been shown

to ac ti vate monocytes to the pro duc tion of re ac tive

ox y gen spe cies (192), IL-8, a po tent at trac tant for

PMN (193), and monocyte chemoattractant pro -

tein-1(MCP-1), even with out prior prim ing (194). In -

creased pro duc tion of MCP-1 at the site of in flam -

ma tion could play an im por tant role in the for ma tion

of granulomas by am pli fi ca tion of lo cal monocyte

re cruit ment. Monocytes from the pe riph eral blood

of pa tients with WG showed the pres ence of MPO

and PR3 on their cell sur face dur ing ac tive dis ease,

and monocytes do ex press the FcgRIIa receptor

and CD18 (195).

T-cell re ac tiv ity to ANCA-as so ci ated

an ti gens

The pres ence of cel lu lar in fil trates in in flam ma -

tory le sions, frenquently also in the form of granu -

lomas, in pa tients with WG and some other vascu -

litis, such as polyarteritis nodosa, Kawasaki and

Takayasu¢s dis ease, sug gests an im por tant role of

cell-me di ated im mu nity in the pathogenesis of

these dis eases (196-200). Immunopathologic stud -

ies have shown that the in flam ma tory in fil trate is

com posed mainly of ac ti vated T-lym pho cytes, the

ma jor ity of which are CD4+ and macrophages

(196,197,199,201-203). In agree ment with these

data, the lev els of sol u ble IL-2 re cep tor are el e vated

in WG pa tients and in crease prior to ma jor re -

lapses, pro vid ing in di rect ev i dence for a role of ac ti -

vated T-cells in sys temic vasculitis (204,205).

T-lym pho cytes iso lated from WG pa tients pro lif er -

ate in re sponse to a crude neutrophil ex tract con -

tain ing PR3 and MPO (206,207). WG pa tients re -




sponded more fre quently and strongly to PR3 than

con trols (208,209). How ever, not all WG pa tients

re sponded to PR3, and T-cell pro lif er a tion was also

found in healthy con trols (209). In this study, strong

IL-10 pro duc tion elic ited by PR3 in vi tro may have

an im por tant func tion in vivo. Re cently, it has been

shown that B-lym pho cyte ac ti va tion is re lated to ac -

tive dis ease, whereas T-lym pho cyte ac ti va tion per -

sists dur ing re mis sion of the dis ease in pa tients with

WG, which points to an in trin si cally dis or dered im -

mu ne sys tem in this dis ease.

The in vivo role of ANCA inex per i men tal mod els

Al though all of the afore men tioned mech a nisms

may be op er a tive in vivo in id io pathic vasculitis,

con clu sive ev i dence for the patho ge nic ity of ANCA

awaits a con vinc ing an i mal model of ANCA-in -

duced vasculitis. Sev eral an i mal mod els have now

emerged that may be rel e vant in this re spect (17).

Un for tu nately, hu man anti-PR3 an ti bod ies only re -

act with neu tro phils of ba boons and not with those

of lower spe cies. Also, im mu ni za tion of rats with hu -

man PR3 does not re sult in an ti bod ies re act ing with

rat neu tro phils. In ter est ingly, a re cent study has

shown that rats in jected with syngeneic rat

apoptotic neu tro phils de velop ANCA, but the spec i -

fic ity of these ANCA could not be es tab lished and

they did not seem to be PR3 or MPO (210). Re -

cently, PR3 has been de tected and cloned in mice

(211). Un for tu nately, monoclonal and polyclonal an -

ti bod ies to hu man PR3 do not re act with cloned

mouse PR3. Antihuman PR3 was in duced in mice

by idiotypic ma nip u la tion (212,213). The mice were

im mu nized with af fin ity-pu ri fied PR3-IgG from two

WG pa tients (212). Af ter two weeks, mice de vel -

oped anti-idiotypic (mouse anti-hu man anti-PR3

an ti bod ies, ab2) and, af ter four months, anti-anti-

idiotypic an ti bod ies re act ing with hu man PR3 (ab3).

In ad di tion, the sera de rived from these mice also

re acted with hu man MPO and en do the lial sur face

pro teins. Histopathologically, ster ile microabsces -

ses de vel oped in the lungs af ter eight months, and

mice died at 8-15 months af ter im mu ni za tion with

anti-PR3-IgG. The ab3 an ti bod ies were tested for

their neutrophil ac ti vat ing abil ity show ing that these

an ti bod ies were ca pa ble to in duce ad he sion of hu -

man neu tro phils to fibronectin and to ini ti ate a re spi -

ra tory burst (213). These stud ies dem on strate that

dysregulation of the idiotypic net work may lead to

the de vel op ment of patho genic autoantibodies.

Whether this the ory is rel e vant for the induction of

ANCA-associated vasculitis cannot, however, be

proven until pathogenic idiotypes on bacterial or

viral antigens are identified.

Sev eral an i mal mod els for anti-MPO-as so ci ated

vasculitis/glomerulonephritis have been de scribed.

Brown Nor way rats (the Th2-re sponder type), ex -

posed to mer cu ric cloride (HgCl2), de vel oped a

gen er al ized au to im mune dis ease, me di ated by

T-cell de pend ent polyclonal B-cell ac ti va tion (214).

The HgCl2-in duced au to im mune syn drome is char -

ac ter ized by lymphoproliferation, high IL-4 pro duc -

tion and hypergammaglobulinemia (215). In ad di -

tion, a mul ti tude of IgG autoantibodies ap peared in

these rats, in clud ing an ti bod ies to DNA, col la gen,

thy ro glob u lin and com po nents of the glo mer u lar

base ment mem brane (216,217). In ad di tion to the

above autoantibodies, HgCl2-treated rats de vel -

oped an ti bod ies to MPO (218). These rats also de -

vel oped wide spread tis sue in jury in clud ing necro -

tizing vasculitis in the submucosal ves sels of the

du o de num and ce cum (219). Sub se quent stud ies

have dem on strated an im por tant role for autore -

active CD4+ T cells which, upon trans fer into

healthy an i mals, can in duce the dis ease (220). On

the other hand, it was shown that CD4+OX22 high

T-cells were pro tec tive since de ple tion of these

cells ag gra vates the se ver ity of tis sue in jury, al -

though the autoantibody re sponse was not af fected

(221). Treat ment with cyclosporine dur ing the early

phase of the dis ease di min ished tis sue in jury and

de layed the rise in anti-MPO and anti-GBM auto -

anti bodies (222). In con trast, treat ment with cyclo -

sporine dur ing the late phase of the dis ease ex ac er -

bated tis sue in jury al though the de vel op ment of

anti-MPO and anti-GBM autoantibodies was com -

pletely suppressed. Taken together, these ob ser va -

tions suggest that HgCl2-induced vasculitis is pri -

mar ily T-cell dependent.

The MRL/lpr strain of mice spon ta ne ously de -

velop lymphoproliferation, proliferative glomerul o -

nephritis and sys temic necrotizing vasculitis of

small and me dium-sized ar ter ies and ar te ri oles,

that par tic u larly af fect the kid ney and gall blad der

(223,224). The spon ta ne ous de vel op ment of tis sue

in jury in these mice is im mu no log i cally char ac ter -

ized by ac cu mu la tion of T-cells with polyclonal




B-cell stim u la tion re sult ing in the ap pear ance of

rheu ma toid fac tors and autoantibodies of di verse

spec i fic ity in clud ing autoantibodies against ds-

DNA, ss-DNA, his tones, smooth mus cle and ANCA

(225). How ever, monoclonal IgG an ti bod ies de rived

from these mice were found to be polyreactive,

recognizing MPO, LF and DNA (226).

SCG/KJ strain of mice, de rived from the F1 hy -

brid of BXSB and MRL/lpr mice, spon ta ne ously de -

velop rap idly pro gres sive glomerulonephritis and

necrotizing vasculitis (227). The sera from these

mice pro duce a perinuclear ANCA stain ing pat tern

on hu man and murine neu tro phils and re act with

murine neutrophil ex tract and hu man MPO by

ELISA (228,229). Trans fer of MPO spe cific hybrido -

mas de rived from SCG/KJ mice into the peri to neum

of nude mice in duced proteinuria, al though histolo -

gical ly no ev i dence for glomerulonephritis or vascu -

litis was found (228).

In duc tion of a se lec tive au to im mune re sponse to

MPO is a more di rect method of study ing the

pathophysiologic role of anti-MPO. Im mu ni za tion of

Brown Nor way rats with hu man MPO in com plete

Freund¢s adjuvant re sults in the de vel op ment of

anti-hu man MPO an ti bod ies cross-re act ing with rat

MPO and de layed-type hy per sen si tiv ity to hu man

MPO (230,231). The au to im mune re sponse alone

does not re sult in clin i cal le sions. How ever, af ter

uni lat eral per fu sion of the left kid ney with prod ucts

of ac ti vated neu tro phils con sist ing of proteolytic en -

zymes (HLE and PR3), MPO and its sub strate

H2O2, these MPO-im mu nized rats de velop necr o -

tizing cres cen tic glomerulonephritis with in ter sti tial

tubulonephritis and vasculitis. Sys temic in jec tion of

lysosomal en zymes, MPO and H2O2 in the jug u lar

vein of MPO-im mu nized rats also re sulted in small

ves sel vasculitis and gi ant cell for ma tion in the

lungs and guts but not in the kid neys (231). The lo -

cal iza tion of the in flam ma tory pro cess in the lungs

and guts sug gests that local factors, e.g., mu -

cosa-as so ci ated microbial elements, are involved.

The patho genic po ten tial of anti-MPO an ti bod -

ies in vivo has also been dem on strated in glo mer u -

lar base ment mem brane (anti-GBM) ne phri tis in

Brown Nor way rats pre vi ously im mu nized with hu -

man MPO (232). Im mu nized rats not only de vel -

oped an ti bod ies to hu man MPO but to rat MPO as

well. Fol low ing in jec tion of a subnephritogenic dose

of rab bit anti-rat GBM an ti bod ies, se vere glomeru -

lonephritis de vel oped char ac ter ized by hematuria,

proteinuria, fibrinoid ne cro sis of glo mer u lar cap il lar -

ies, ex ten sive fi brin ac cu mu la tion of monocy t -

es/mac ro phages and cres cent for ma tion. In con trol

im mu nized rats in jected with the anti-GBM an ti bod -

ies, only mild glomerulonephritis was found with out

ev i dence for cres cent for ma tion, sug gest ing that

the autologous anti-rat MPO antibodies are re s pon -

si ble for the exacerbation of the anti-GBM disease.

These stud ies suport the hy poth e sis that the

pres ence of ANCA it self is not suf fi cient to cause tis -

sue in jury. Ad di tional fac tors in duc ing a proinflam -

matory en vi ron ment are needed, which ini tially re -

sult in prim ing of neu tro phils and monocytes and

ac ti va tion of the en do the lium. Af ter that, ANCA ac ti -

vate primed neu tro phils/monocytes and form in situ

im mune com plexes with ANCA an ti gens re leased

from ac ti vated neu tro phils, thereby ex ac er bat ing

the in flam ma tory re sponse and fi nally leading to

vas culitis and tissue destruction.

IN TE GRA TIVE VIEW OF THE

PO TEN TIAL IM MUNE MECH A NISMS

IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF

ANCA-AS SO CI ATED VASCULITIS

Sche matic pre sen ta tion of an in te gra tive view of

ANCA-me di ated vas cu lar tis sue dam age is shown

in Fig ure 2. The model is based on the four pre req -

ui sites for en do the lial cell dam age by ANCA: 1) the

pres ence of ANCA; 2) ex pres sion of tar get an ti gens

for ANCA on primed neu tro phils and monocytes; 3)

the ne ces sity of an in ter ac tion be tween primed neu -

tro phils and en do the lium by means of b2-integrins;

and 4) ac ti va tion of endothelial cells (7,8,16-20).

In fec tion or other tis sue in jury in duces an in flam -

ma tory re sponse as so ci ated with cytokine re lease

(TNF-a, IL-1b) re sult ing in prim ing of neu tro phils

and/or monocytes. Prim ing of these cells prompts

ex pres sion of ANCA tar get an ti gens (PR3, MPO) on

their sur face. In this man ner the autoantigen be -

comes ac ces si ble to the cir cu lat ing ANCA. Primed

neu tro phils and monocytes also ex press Fcg-re -

cep tors on their sur face. Con se quently, ANCA can

bind to their sur face via their con stant re gion (Fc).

Si mul ta neous bind ing of cir cu lat ing an ti gen re -

leased from ac ti vated in flam ma tory cells may

cause crosslinking of Fcg-re cep tors initating the




Fcg- re cep tor engagement-dependent activation

events.

The mech a nisms by which ANCA pro duc tion is

trig gered and per pet u ated re main un clear. It has

been pos tu lated that superantigens and de fect(s) in

apoptosis or in the re moval of apoptotic cells may

lead to the de vel op ment of ANCA through by pass -

ing nor mal mech a nisms of tol er ance (233,234). It is

well known that superantigens from bac te ria and vi -

ruses ac ti vate large pop u la tions of T-cells ex press -

ing b-chain vari able gene seg ments of the T-cell re -

cep tor (TCR-Vb). These T-cells pro duce large

amounts of proinflammatory cytokines and help the

autoreactive B-cells pro duce ANCA. It has been re -

ported that the ma jor ity of pa tients with WG are

chronic na sal car ri ers of Staph y lo coc cus aureus

and that car ri ers ex pe ri ence a re lapse nearly eight

times more fre quently than noncarriers (79). Some

stud ies in these pa tients have dem on strated skew -

ing of the TCR-Vb rep er toire in pe riph eral T-cells,

sug ges tive of superantigen trig ger ing of T-cells

(235). Also, the clus ter ing of autoantibodies has

been ob served on the sur face of apoptotic cells in

sys temic vasculitis. Morever, it has been found that

ANCA in ter act with clus tered granule constituents

on the surface of apoptotic neutrophils (236,237).

The bind ing of ANCA to primed neu tro phils and

monocytes in duces re lease of cytokines (IL-8,

MCP-1) and pos si bly other fac tors that are strong

chemoattractants for more in flam ma tory cells.

ANCA also in duce a re spi ra tory burst with re lease

of re ac tive ox y gen spe cies (ROS) and degranu -

lation with re lease of lysosomal en zymes (HLE,

PR3, MPO), which leads to en do the lial cell in jury




Fig ure 2. Sche matic pre sen ta tion of an intergrative view of the im mune mech a nisms in volved in the pathogenesis ofANCA-as so ci ated vasculitis. Cytokines re leased due to in fec tion or other tis sue in jury cause prim ing of neu tro philsand/or monocytes (A) and upregulation of ad he sion mol e cules (ELAM-1, ICAM-1, VCAM-1) on the en do the lium. Cir cu -lat ing primed neu tro phils and/or monocytes ex press ANCA an ti gens (PR3, MPO), ad he sion mol e cules (LFA-1, VLA-4)and FcgR on the cell sur face (B). Bind ing of ANCA to primed neu tro phils and monocytes in duces re lease of cytokinessuch as IL-8, IL-1b, MCP-1 and pos si bly oth ers fac tors that are strong chemoattractants for more in flam ma tory cells pos -si bly lead ing to granuloma for ma tion (C). Ad her ence of primed neu tro phils and/or monocytes to the en do the lium fol lowed by ac ti va tion of these cells by ANCA. Ac ti vated neu tro phils and monocytes re lease re ac tive ox y gen spe cies (ROS),which leads to en do the lial cell in jury and even tu ally to necrotising in flam ma tion (D). PR3 and MPO from ANCA-ac ti vatedneu tro phils and/or monocytes re sults in en do the lial cell ac ti va tion, en do the lial cell in jury, or even en do the lial cellapoptosis (E). PR3 and MPO serve as planted an ti gens re sult ing in in situ im mune com plexes, which in turn at tract otherneu tro phils (F). The mech a nism by which ANCA pro duc tion is trig gered and per pet u ated re main un clear. How ever,T-cells are though to play a sig nif i cant role in me di at ing the pro duc tion of ANCA by plasma cells, which are de rived froman ti gen-spe cific B-cells (G). Adapted from ref. 163.

(apoptosis) and even tu ally to necrotizing in flam ma -

tion. Ex cept for cytokines, ANCA stim u la tion also

ac ti vates en do the lial cells re sult ing in in creased ad -

her ence of primed and ac ti vated neu tro phils to their

sur face. Con se quently, the re lease of cytotoxic

neutrophil con stit u ents can di rectly cause en do the -

lial cell dam age by di rect cytotoxicity, apoptosis and

com ple ment ac ti va tion by immune complex bound

on the endothelial cell surface.

This con cep tual scheme is con sis tent with clin i -

cal ob ser va tions and an i mal model data, which

clearly in di cate that ANCA alone do not nec es sar ily

lead to dis ease man i fes ta tions. Co factors that lead

to ac ti va tion of in flam ma tory and en do the lial cells

seem to be re quired to ac ti vate var i ous patho genic

mech a nisms leading to small vessel vasculitis.

CON CLU SION

The sig nif i cance of ANCA as di ag nos tic mark ers

for sys temic necrotizing vasculitis or id io pathic

necrotizing cres cen tic glomerulonephritis is well es -

tab lished. De tec tion of PR3-ANCA strongly sug -

gests a di ag no sis of Wegener¢s granulomatosis,

and changes in se rum lev els of these autoantibo -

dies seem to mir ror dis ease ac tiv ity. MPO-ANCA

are as so ci ated with var i ous forms of sys temic nec -

ro tizing vasculitis in clud ing id io pathic necrotizing

cres cen tic glomerulonephritis. The di ag nos tic sig -

nif i cance of ANCA against other tar get an ti gens is

not clear. Their use ful ness in mea sur ing dis ease

ac tiv ity is at pres ent not clear, al though some stud -

ies suggest that rises in anti-MPO levels precede

relapses.

Many ques tions re main con cern ing the patho -

physi o logic role of ANCA, al though both in vi tro and

in vivo ex per i men tal data strongly sup port a patho -

genic role for ANCA in vasculitis and glomerulo -

nephritis. How ever, ANCA alone are not suf fi cient

and other, prob a bly ex og e nous fac tors seem nec -

es sary for dis ease ac ti va tion and (re)ac ti va tion. Cir -

cum stan tial ev i dence from hu man (Staph y lo coc cus

aureus car riage) and ex per i men tal (e.g., the mer cu -

ric chlo ride model) stud ies sug gest that ex og e nous

fac tors, pos si bly of a microbial nature, are involved

in disease expression.

Ac knowl edge ments. We thank Mr. Zoran Tadiæ

from De part ment of An i mal Phys i ol ogy, School of

Nat u ral Sci ences and Math e mat ics, Uni ver sity of

Zagreb, for his il lus tra tion of the immunopathogenic

mech a nism of ANCA.

Abbrevations

AECA antiendothelial cell an ti body

ACPA anticytoplasmic an ti body

a1-AT a1-antitrypsin

AIH au to im mune hep a ti tis

ANA antinuclear an ti body

ANCA antineutrophil cy to plas mic an ti body

a/P-ANCA ‘atyp i cal’ perinuclear ANCA

C-ANCA cy to plas mic ANCA

P-ANCA perinuclear ANCA

BPI bac te ri cidal/per me abil ity-in creas ing pro tein

CD Crohn’s dis ease

CG cathepsin G

CTD con nec tive tis sue dis eases

CSS Churg-Strauss syn drome

ELAM en do the lial ad he sion mol e cule

ELISA en zyme-linked immunosorbent as say

FcgR Fc-gamma re cep tors

GBM glo mer u lar base ment mem brane

GS-ANA granulocyte-spe cific ANA

HLE hu man leu ko cyte elastase

HMG1 and 2 high mo til ity group of nonhistone chro mo -somal pro teins 1 and 2

H2O2 hy dro gen per ox ide

IB immunoblot

IBD in flam ma tory bowel dis ease

ICAM-1 intercellular ad he sion mol e cule-1

IIF in di rect immunofluorescence

IFN-g in ter feron-g

IL-1b interleukin-1b

IL-8 interleukin-8

iNCGN id io pathic necrotizing cres cen ticglomerulonephritis

LF lactoferrin

LCV leukocytoclastic vasculitis

LFA-1 lym pho cyte func tion an ti gen-1

LPS lipopolysaccharide

LZ lysozyme

MCP-1 monocyte chemoattractant pro tein-1

MPA mi cro scopic polyangiitis

MPO myeloperoxidase

MPO-ANCA myeloperoxidase - antineutrophic cytoplasma an ti body

PAN polyarteritis nodosa

PBC pri mary biliary cir rho sis

PM/DM polymyositis/dermatomyositis

PR3 proteinase-3

PR3-ANCA proteinase-3 antineutrophic cytoplasma an ti body




PSC pri mary sclerosing cholangitis

RA rheu ma toid ar thri tis

RIA radioimmunoassay

ROS re ac tive ox y gen spe cies

SLE sys temic lupus erythematosus

SS Sjögren’s syn drome

SSc sys temic scle ro sis

TCR-Vb -cell re cep tor

TNF-a tu mor ne cro sis fac tor a

UC ul cer ative co li tis

VCAM-1 vas cu lar ad he sion mol e cule-1

VLA-4 very late an ti gen-4

WG Wegener’s granulomatosis

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