Ang panitikan ay nagsasabi o nagpapahayag ng mga kaisipan, mga damdamin, mga karanasan, hangarin at diwa

ng mga tao. At ito rin ang pinakapayak na paglalarawan lalo na sa pagsulat ng tuwiran o tuluyan at patula.

Ang salitang panitikan ay nanggaling sa salitang "pang-titik-an" na kung saan ang unlaping "pang" ay ginamit at

hulaping "an". At sa salitang "titik" naman ay nangunguhulugang literatura (literature), na ang literatura ay galing sa

Latin na litterana nangunguhulugang titik.

Nagsasalaysay din ito sa pamahalaan, lipunan at mga pananampatalaya at mga karanasang may kaugnay ng iba’t

ibang uri ng damdamin tulad ng pag-ibig, kaligayahan, kalungkutan, pag-asa, pagkapoot, paghihiganti, pagkasuklam,

sindak at pangamba.

 

 

Dalawang Uri ang Panitikan

 

1. Patula – Ito ay nabubuo sa pamamagitan ng pagsasama-sama ng maaanyong salita sa mga taludtod na may

sukat o bilang ng mga pantig at pagtutugma ng mga salita sa hulihan ng mga taludtod sa bawat

saknong.  Kabilang ditto ang mga sumusunod: tulang liriko, tulang pasalaysay, tulang pangtanghalan, at

patnigan.

2. Tuluyan o Prosa – Ito ay nabubuo sa pamamagitan ng malayang pagsasama-sama ng mga salita sa mga

pangungusap.  Hindi limitado o pigil ang paggamit ng mga pangungusap ng may-akda.  Kabilang ditto ang

mga sumusunod: maikling kwento, nobela, dula, alamat, pabula, talambuhay, sanaysay, balita ateditoryal.

 

 

Dahilan sa Pag-aaral ng Panitikang Pilipino

 

1. Upang makilala ang kalinangang Pilipino, malaman ang ating minanang yaman ng kaisipan at taglay na

katalinihan ng lahing ating pinagmulan.

2. Upang matalos natin na tayo’y may marangal at dakilang tradisyon na nagsilbing patnubay sa mga

impluwensya ng ibang mga kabihasnang nanggaling sa iba’t ibang mga bansa.

3. Upang mabatid natin ang mga kaisipan sa ating panitikan at makapagsanay upang maiwasto ang mga ito.

4. Upang malaman an gating mga kagalingan sa pagsulat at mapagsikapang ito ay mapagbuti at mapaunlad.

5. Bilang mga Pilipinong mapagmahal at mapagmalasakit sa ating sariling kultura ay dapat nating pag-aralan an

gating panitikan.  Tayo higit kanino man ang dapat magpahalaga sa sariling atin.

6. mga akdang nakaimpluwensya sa panitikan ng daigdig: 

7. 1.banal na kasulatan2. Koran3.Iliad at Odyssey4.Mahabharata

5.Divina Commedia6.El Cid Campeador7.Awit ni Rolando8.Aklat ng mga Araw9.Aklat ng mga Patay10.Sanlibo't isang Gabi11.Centerbury Tales12.Uncle Tom's Cabin ni Harriet Beecher

Ang Panitikan sa Pilipinas ay pangunahing tumutukoy sa umiiral, umuunlad, at namamayaning uri at

anyo ng katutubong panitikan sa bansang Pilipinas. Subalit nakakasama rin dito ang mga panitikang

nilikha at ginawa ng mga Pilipinong nasa labas ng sariling bansa, sapagkat inakdaan ang mga ito ng mga

Pilipino, o ng may-lahing Pilipino sa malawak na nasasakupan ng paksa. Dahil dito, tinatawag

ding Panitikang Pilipino[1] angPanitikan ng Pilipinas.[2] Sa kasalukuyan, tinatawag din itong Panitikang

Filipino[3], sapagkat kinabibilangan ng mga likhang pampanitikang nagmula sa at kinabibilangan ng iba’t

ibang wika sa Pilipinas.

Mayaman ang Pilipinas sa sari-saring anyo at hubog ng panitikan na naglalarawan sa kalinangan ng mga

Pilipino. Kabilang sa mga ito ang kuwentong-bayan, maikling kuwento o maikling

katha, sanaysay, tula, dula, nobela, drama, balagtasan, parabula, bugtong, salawikain, kasabihan, pabul

a, alamat,tanaga, bulong, awiting-bayan, epiko, pelikula, at mga iskrip na pangradyo, pangtelebisyon at

pampelikula[3][4][5]

Mga nilalaman

  [itago] 

1 Kahulugan ng Panitikang Pilipino

2 Mga katangian ng Panitikang Pilipino

3 Kahalagahan ng Panitikang Pilipino

4 Pag-aaral ng Panitikang Pilipino

5 Pag-uuring pampanitikan

o 5.1 Mga paraan ng pag-uuri

5.1.1 Ayon sa paghahalin

5.1.1.1 Pasalindila

5.1.1.2 Pasalinsulat

5.1.1.3 Pasalintroniko

5.1.2 Ayon sa anyo

5.1.2.1 Patula

5.1.2.2 Patuluyan

5.1.2.3 Patanghal

6 Sinaunang Panitikang Pilipino

7 Paraan ng pagbasa at pagpapaliwanag

o 7.1 Paraang historikal

o 7.2 Paraang pormalistiko

8 Mga sanggunian

o 8.1 Partikular

o 8.2 Malawakan

[baguhin]Kahulugan ng Panitikang Pilipino

Pangunahing lathalain: Panitikan

May iba’t ibang mga manunulat at mga dalubahasang Pilipino ang nagbigay ng kahulugan sa panitikan

ayon sa kanilang pananaw bilang mamamayan ng Pilipinas. Kabilang sa mga ito sina Joey Arrogante,

Zeus Salazar, at Patrocinio V. Villafuerte, bukod pa sa iba.[6]

Noong 1983, para kay Arrogante, isang talaan ng buhay ang panitikan kung saan nagsisiwalat ang isang

tao ng mga bagay na kaugnay ng napupuna niyang kulay ng buhay at buhay sa kanyang daigdig na

kinabibilangan. Ginagawa ito ng isang tao sa pamamagitan ng malikhain pamamaraan.[6]

Noong 1995, inilarawan ni Salazar ang panitikan bilang isang lakas na nagpapagalaw sa lipunan.

Dinagdag pa niyang isa itong kasangkapang makapangyarihan na maaaring magpalaya sa isang ideyang

nagpupumiglas upang makawala. Para sa kanya, isa rin itong kakaibang karanasang pantaong natatangi

sa sangkatauhan.[6]

[baguhin]Mga katangian ng Panitikang Pilipino

Isang paglalantad ang panitikan ng mga katotohanang panlipunan at ng mga kathang-isip na guni-guni.

Hinahaplos nito ang mga sensorya ng tao: ang pantanaw, pandinig, pang-amoy, panlasa, at pandama.

Noong 2000, binigyang katangian ito ni Villafuerte bilang isang buhay ngunit payak na salitang

dumadaloy sa katawan ng tao. May buhay ang panitikan sapagkat may sarili itong pintig at dugong mainit

na dumadaloy sa mga arteryo at bena ng bawat nilalang at ng isang buong lipunan. Sa kasong ito, sa

mga Pilipino at sa kanilang lipunang ginagalawan.[6]

Kapag binasa ang panitikan, pinagmumulan ito ng madamdaming emosyon sa isang tao o pangkat ng

mga tao, sapagkat sinulat ang mga ito ng kapwa tao.[4]

Sa kasalukuyan, madali at magaang ang pamamaraan ng pagkalat at pagpapamudmod ng panitikan sa

Pilipinas. Dahil ito sa makabagong mga kaunlaran sa larangan ng teknolohiya. Bukod sa mga nasusulat

na salita sa mga aklat, radyo, at telebisyon, kumakalat din ang panitikan sa pamamagitan ng mga

kagamitang elektronika, katulad ng grabador ng tinig at tunog (tape recorder), diskong kompakto

(compact disk), plaka, mga tape ng VHS, at mga kompyuter.[3] Dahil sa internet, naging maginhawa at

madali ang pagkuha ng impormasyong pampanitikan. Isa nang instrumento ito para sa mga

mambabasang Pilipinong may pagpapahalaga at pagmamalaki sa kanilang pinagmulan, kasaysayan, at

kalinangan o kultura.[4]

[baguhin]Kahalagahan ng Panitikang Pilipino

May kaakibat na kahalagan ang panitikan para sa mga Pilipino. Isa itong uri ng mahalagang panlunas na

tumutulong sa mga tao upang makapagplano ng sari-sariling mga buhay, upang matugunan ang kanilang

mga suliranin, at upang maunawaan ang diwa ng kalikasan ng pagiging makatao. Maaaring mawala o

maubos ang mga kayamanan ng isang tao, at maging ang kanyang pagiging makabayan, subalit hindi

ang panitikan. Isang halimbawa nito ang pangdadayuhan ng ibang mga Pilipino. Bagaman nilisan nila

ang kanilang bayang sinilangan, ang panitikan ang kanilang tulay sa naiwan nilang bansa.[4]

Sa panlipunan, pambansa, at pandaigdigang kaukulan, isa ang panitikan sa pinagbabatayan ng

pagkakaroon ng tagumpay at kabiguan ng isang bansa at ng ugnayan ng mga bansa.[4]

[baguhin]Pag-aaral ng Panitikang Pilipino

Isang malaki at mahalagang bahagi ng edukasyon sa Pilipinas ang pag-aaral at pagkakaroon ng

kurikulum na ukol sa panitikang Pilipino.[4] Bilang isang kurso sa paaralan, dalubhasaan, o pamantasan,

ginagamitan ang pag-aaral ng Panitikan sa Pilipinas ng makasaysayang pananaw. Sinasaklawan nito ang

kasaysayan ng Panitikang Pilipino sa iba't ibang panahong pinagdaanan ng bansang Pilipinas. Sakop din

nito ang mga mga uri at anyo ng Panitikang Pilipino, paglinang nito, mga manunulat, mga bayani, at mga

mithiin ng sangkabansaan.[1]

[baguhin]Pag-uuring pampanitikan

[baguhin]Mga paraan ng pag-uuri

May dalawang ng pag-uuri ng panitikan: ang ayon sa paghahalin at ang ayon sa kaanyuan o anyo.[3]

[baguhin]Ayon sa paghahalin

May tatlong kabahaging uri ang paraan ng pag-uuri ng panitikan ayon sa paghahalin. Ito

ang pasalindila, pasalinsulat, at ang pasalintroniko.[3]

[baguhin]Pasalindila

Ang pasalindila ay ang paraan ng paglilipat ng panitikan mula sa dila at bibig ng tao. Noong hindi pa

marunong magsulat ang mga ninuno ng mga makabagong Pilipino, binibigkas lamang nila ang mga tula,

awit, nobela, epiko, at iba pa. Kalimitang nagtitipun-tipon ang sinaunang mga Pilipino upang pakinggan

ang mga salaysayin, paglalahad o pamamayag na ito. Paulit-ulit nilang pinakikinggan ang mga ito upang

matanim sa kanilang isipan. Sa ganitong palagiang pakikinig at pagbigkas ng panitikan, nagawa nilang

maisalin ang mga ito papunta sa susunod na salinlahi o henerasyon ng mga Pilipino.[3]

[baguhin]Pasalinsulat

Ang pasalinsulat, isinatitik, isinulat, inukit, o iginuhit ng mga ninuno ng pangkasalukuyang panahong mga

Pilipino ang kanilang panitikan. Naganap ito noong matutunan nila ang sinaunangabakada o alpabeto,

kabilang na ang mas naunang baybayin at mga katulad nito.

[baguhin]Pasalintroniko

Isang bagong kaparaanan ng pag-uuri ang pansalintroniko, o pagsasalin ng panitikan sa pamamagitan ng

mga kagamitang elektroniko na dulot ng teknolohiyang elektronika. Ilan sa mga halimbawa nito ang

paggamit ng mga diskong kompakto, plaka, rekorder (tulad ng tape recorder at ng VHS), mga aklat na

elektroniko (hindi na binubuklat dahil hindi na yari sa papel, bagkus ay nasa mga elektronikong anyo na),

at ang kompyuter.[3]

[baguhin]Ayon sa anyo

Ayon sa anyo, ang panitikan ay nahahati sa tatlong uri. Ito ang patula, patuluyan at patanghal.[3]

[baguhin]Patula

Nasa anyong patula ang panitikan kung saknungan ito at may taludturan. Katangian ng mga taludtod ng

mga tula ang pagkakaroon ng bilang at sukat ng mga pantig at ang pagkakatugma-tugma o

pagkakasintunug-tunog ng mga pantig. Subalit mayroon din namang mga panitikang patulang tinatawag

na Malaya sapagkat walang bilang, sukat, tugmaan, at pagkakasintunugan ng mga pantig ng taludtod.

Mayroong apat na uri ang anyong patula: tulang pasalaysay, tulang paawit o tulang liriko, tulang

dula o tulang pantanghalan, at tulang patnigan. May mga uri rin ang bawat isa sa mga ito:[3]

Naglalarawan ang tulang pasalaysay ng mga tagpo at pangyayaring mahahalaga sa buhay

ng tao. Mayroon itong tatlong mga uri: ang epiko, ang awit at kurido, at ang balad.

May anim na uri ang tulang paawit o tulang liriko: awiting-

bayan, soneto, elehiya, dalit, pastoral, at oda.

May limang uri naman ang tulang dula o tulang patanghal:

ang komedya, trahedya, parsa, saynete, at melodrama.

May tatlong uri rin ang tulang patnigan: ang karagatan, duplo at balagtasan.[3]

[baguhin]Patuluyan

Tinatawag na patuluyan ang anyo ng panitikan kung kagaya lamang ng sa pang-araw-

araw na paglalahad ang takbo ng pananalitang ginamit ng may-akda. Nahahati sa mga

talata o talataan ang mga bungkos ng pangungusap at hindi pasaknong.[3]

Ilan sa mga uri ng anyong patuluyan ang maikling

kuwento, sanaysay, nobela o kathangbuhay, at kuwentong bayan. Kinabibilangan ang

mga kuwentong bayan ng alamat, mulamat o mito,pabula, kuwentong

kababalaghan, kuwentong katatawanan, at palaisipan.[3]

[baguhin]Patanghal

Tinataguriang patanghal ang anyo ng panitikan kung isinasadula ito sa mga entablado,

mga bahay, mga bakuran, mga daan, o sa mga naaangkop na mga pook. Mayroon

itong mga sangkap na diyalogong nasusulat na maaaring patula o kaya patuluyan ang

anyo. Mayroon din itong mga yugto na bumibilang mula sa isa magpahanggang tatlo.

Binubuo ng tagpo ang bawat yugto. Sa moro-moro, na isang halimbawa ng panitikang

patanghal, tinatawag na kuwadro ang tagpo. Kinakailangang ipalabas ito sa isang

tanghalaan o dulaan upang matawag na patanghal.[3]

[baguhin]Sinaunang Panitikang Pilipino

Pangunahing lathalain: Sinaunang Panitikan sa Pilipinas

Katulad ng maraming mga banyagang kabihasnan, mayroon nang panitikan sa Pilipinas

noong unang mga kapanahunan.[3][5] Nagbuhat ang panitikan ng Pilipinas mula sa sari-

saring mga lipon at pangkat ng mga taong dumating sa mga kapuluan nito. May

pagkaka-agwat-agwat na dumating sa sinaunang Pilipinas ang mga Negrito,

mga Indones, at mga Malay. Ang baybayin, ang isa sa mga pagpapatibay na mayroon

nang sistema ng pagsulat at pasalita sa sinaunang Pilipinas bago pa man dumating ang

mga pangkat ng mga dayuhan nagmula sa Kanlurang bahagi ng mundo. Subalit

karamihan sa mga naisulat na panitikang katha ng sinaunang mga tao sa Pilipinas ang

sinunog ng mga Kastila. Nangabulok at natunaw naman ang ibang naisatitik sa ibabaw

lamang ng mga balat ng punong kahoy at mga dahon ng mga halaman.[5]

[baguhin]Paraan ng pagbasa at pagpapaliwanag

Mayroong dalawang pamamaraan ng pagbasa at papaliwanang ng mga tekstong

pampanitikan: ang makasaysayan o historikal na paraan at ang pormalistikong

kaparaanan.[7]

[baguhin]Paraang historikal

Isang tradisyonal o nakaugaliang paraan sa pagbasa at pagpapaliwanag ng mga

tekstong pampanitikan. Isa itong metodong nagpapakita ng mga bagay, karanasan, at

puwersang pangkasaysayan na nagbigay ng impluwensiya tungo sa paggawa,

pagsulat, paghubog, at pag-unlad ng panitikan sa Pilipinas.[7]

Sa ganitong paraan, nagkaroon ng apat na kahatian ang kapanahunang

pangkasaysayan ng Pilipinas: ang Panahon ng Pananakop Bago Dumating ang mga

Kastila o Pre-Spanish Colonial Period(1400-1600), ang Panahon ng mga Kastila

o Spanish Period (1600-1898), Panahon ng mga Amerikano o American

Occupation (1898-1946), at ang Pangkasalukuyang Panahon Pagkaraan ng

Kolonyalismo o Contemporary Post-colonial Period.[7]

Kaugnay ng panitikang Pilipino, sina Jose Villa Panganiban at Teofilo del Castillo ang

unang gumamit ng ganitong paraan upang makamit ang interpretasyon ng

pangliteraturang mga teksto.[7]

[baguhin]Paraang pormalistiko

Ang paraang pormalistiko ay isang pormal at empirikal na pamamaraan ng pagbasa at

pagpapaliwanag  – maging pagsulat  – ng tekstong pampanitikan na Dumating sa

Pilipinas ang ganitong paraan sa pamamagitan ng Amerikanong sistemang pang-

edukasyon.[7]

Sa ganitong paraan, mas detalyado at empirikal (batay sa karanasan, obserbasyon,

pagsubok o eksperimento, ayon sa praktikal na karanasan, sa halip na teoriya[8]) ang

pamamaraan ng pagbasa ng pampanitikang teksto na may layuning tuklasin ang kung

ano talaga ang makapampanitikan o literaryo sa teksto. Nag-iiba-iba ang mga

kaparaanan mula sa diin at patutunguhan o direksyon ng mga gumagamit nito. Kabilang

sa pinagtutuunan ng pansin dito ang pagkakaroon ng pagkakaisa o unidad ng katawan

ng teksto, o sa madalaing sabi: nakatuon mismo sa pinakateksto.[7]

1. The process of developing and implementing various sets of instructions to enable a computer to do a certain task. These instructions are considered computer programs and help the computer to operate smoothly. The language used to program computers is not understood by an untrained eye. Computer programming continues to be a necessary process as the Internet continues to expand.2. Higher education degree program, which usually requires a certain number of courses to be completed in order to receive certification or a degree.

Computer programming is a field that has to do with the analytical creation of source code that can be used to configure computer systems. Computer programmers may choose to function in a broad range of programming functions, or specialize in some aspect of development, support, or maintenance of computers for the home or workplace. Programmers provide the basis for the creation and ongoing function of the systems that many people rely upon for all sorts of information exchange, both business related and for entertainment purposes.The computer programmer often focuses on the development of software that allows people to perform a broad range of functions. All online functions that are utilized in the home and office owe their origins to a programmer or group of programmers. Computer operating systems, office suites, word processing programs, and even Internet dialing software all exist because of the work of programmers.Computer programming goes beyond software development. The profession also extends to the adaptation of software for internal use, and the insertion of code that allows a program to be modified for a function that is unique to a given environment. When this is the case, the computer programmer may be employed with a company that wishes to use existing software as the foundation for a customized platform that will be utilized as part of the company intranet.A third aspect of computer programming is the ongoing maintenance of software that is currently running as part of a network. Here, the programmer may work hand in hand with other information technology specialists to identify issues with current programs, and take steps to adapt or rewrite sections of code in order to correct a problem or enhance a function in some manner.In short, computer programming is all about developing, adapting, and maintaining all the programs that many of us rely upon for both work and play. Programmers are constantly in demand for all of these three functions, since businesses and individuals are always looking for new and better ways to make use of computer technology for all sorts of tasks. With this in mind, computer programming is a very stable profession to enter, and provides many different possibilities of employment opportunities.

Set of ordered instructions that enable a computer to carry out a specific task. A program is prepared by first formulating the task and then expressing it in an appropriate programming language.

Programmers may work inmachine language or in assembly languages. But most applications programmers use one of the high-level languages (such as BASIC or C++) or fourth-generation languages that more closely resemble human communication. Other programs then translate the instructions into machine language for the computer to use. Programs are stored on permanent media (such as a hard disk), and loaded into RAM to be executed by the computer's processor, which executes each instruction in the program, one at a time. Programs are often divided into applications and system programs. Applications perform tasks such as word processing, database functions, or accessing the Internet. System programs control the functioning of the computer itself; an operating system is a very large program that controls the operations of the computer, the transfer of files, and the processing of other programs.

For more information on computer program, visit Britannica.com.

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Barron's Marketing Dictionary: computer programTop

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Set of instructions in a logical sequence interpreted and executed by a computer enabling the computer to perform a required function; also called software. Programs are the "thought processes" of computers, without which they cannot operate. Programs are written in various languages, to conform with the operating system of particular computers.

Columbia Encyclopedia: computer programTop

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computer program, a series of instructions that a computer can interpret and execute; programs are also called software to distinguish them from hardware, the physical equipment used in data processing. These programming instructions cause the computer to perform arithmetic and logical operations or comparisons (and then take some additional action based on the comparison) or to input or output data in a desired sequence. In conventional computing the operations are executed sequentially; in parallel processing the operations are allocated among multiple processors, which execute them concurrently and share the results. Programs are often written as a series of

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subroutines, which can be used in more than one program or at more than one point in the same program.

Systems programs are those that control the operation of the computer. Chief among these is the operating system-also called the control program, executive, or supervisor-which schedules the execution of other programs, allocates system resources, and controls input and output operations. Processing programs are those whose execution is controlled by the operating system. Language translators decode source programs, written in a programming language, and produce object programs, which are in machine language and can be understood by the computer. These include assemblers, which translate symbolic languages that have a one-to-one relationship with machine language; compilers, which translate an algorithmic- or procedural-language program into a machine-language program to be executed at a later time; and interpreters, which translate source-language statements into object-language statements for immediate execution. Other processing programs are service or utility programs, such as those that "dump" computer memory to external storage for safekeeping and those that enable the programmer to "trace" program execution, and application programs, which perform business and scientific functions, such as payroll processing, accounts payable and receivable posting, word processing, and simulation of environmental conditions.

Bibliography

See F. Maddix and G. Morgan, Systems Software: An Introduction to Language Processors and Operating Systems(1989).

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A computer program (also software, or just a program) is a sequence of instructions written to

perform a specified task with a computer.[1]  A computer requires programs to function,

typically executing the program's instructions in acentral processor.[2]  The program has

an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program

in its human-readable source code form, from which executable programs are derived (e.g., compiled),

enables a programmer to study and develop its algorithms.

Computer source code is often written by computer programmers. Source code is written in

a programming languagethat usually follows one of two

main paradigms: imperative or declarative programming. Source code may be converted into

an executable file (sometimes called an executable program or a binary) by a compiler and later

executed by a central processing unit. Alternatively, computer programs may be executed with the aid

of aninterpreter, or may be embedded directly into hardware.

Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines: system software and application

software. Two or more computer programs may run simultaneously on one computer, a process known

as multitasking.

Contents

1   Programming

o 1.1   Paradigms

o 1.2   Compiling or interpreting

o 1.3   Self-modifying programs

2   Execution and storage

o 2.1   Embedded programs

o 2.2   Manual programming

o 2.3   Automatic program generation

o 2.4   Simultaneous execution

3   Functional categories

4   See also

5   References

6   Further reading

7   External links

Programming

Main article: Computer programming

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

printf("Hello world!\n");

return 0;

}

Source code of a Hello World programwritten in the C programming language

Computer programming is the iterative process of writing or editingsource code. Editing source code

involves testing, analyzing, and refining, and sometimes coordinating with other programmers on a

jointly developed program. A person who practices this skill is referred to as a computer programmer,

software developer or coder. The sometimes lengthy process of computer programming is usually

referred to assoftware development. The term software engineering is becoming popular as the

process is seen as an engineering discipline.

Paradigms

Computer programs can be categorized by the programming language paradigm  used to produce

them. Two of the main paradigms areimperative and declarative.

Programs written using an imperative language specify an algorithm using declarations, expressions,

and statements.[3]  A declaration couples a variable name to a datatype. For example: var x:

integer; . An expression yields a value. For example: 2 + 2 yields 4. Finally, a statement might

assign an expression to a variable or use the value of a variable to alter the program's control flow. For

example: x := 2 + 2; if x = 4 then do_something();One criticism of imperative languages

is the side effect of an assignment statement on a class of variables called non-local variables.[4]

Programs written using a declarative language specify the properties that have to be met by the

output. They do not specify details expressed in terms of the control flow of the executing machine but

of the mathematical relations between the declared objects and their properties. Two broad categories

of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages. The principle behind

functional languages (like Haskell) is to not allow side effects, which makes it easier to reason about

programs like mathematical functions.[4]  The principle behind logical languages (like Prolog) is to define

the problem to be solved — the goal — and leave the detailed solution to the Prolog system itself.

[5]  The goal is defined by providing a list of subgoals. Then each subgoal is defined by further providing

a list of its subgoals, etc. If a path of subgoals fails to find a solution, then that subgoal

is backtracked and another path is systematically attempted.

The form in which a program is created may be textual or visual. In a visual language program,

elements are graphically manipulated rather than textually specified.

Compiling or interpreting

A computer program in the form of a human-readable, computer programming language is

called source code. Source code may be converted into an executable image by a compiler or

executed immediately with the aid of aninterpreter.

Either compiled or interpreted programs might be executed in a batch process without human

interaction, but interpreted programs allow a user to type commands in an interactive session. In this

case the programs are the separate commands, whose execution occurs sequentially, and thus

together. When a language is used to give commands to a software application (such as a shell) it is

called a scripting language.

Compilers are used to translate source code from a programming language into either object

code or machine code. Object code needs further processing to become machine code, and machine

code is the central processing unit's native code, ready for execution. Compiled computer programs

are commonly referred to as executables, binary images, or simply as binaries — a reference to

the binary file format used to store the executable code.

Interpreted computer programs - in a batch or interactive session - are either decoded and then

immediately executed or are decoded into some efficient intermediate representation for future

execution. BASIC, Perl, andPython are examples of immediately executed computer programs.

Alternatively, Java computer programs are compiled ahead of time and stored as a machine

independent code called bytecode. Bytecode is then executed on request by an interpreter called

a virtual machine.

The main disadvantage of interpreters is that computer programs run slower than when compiled.

Interpreting code is slower than running the compiled version because the interpreter

must decode each statement each time it is loaded and then perform the desired action. However,

software development may be faster using an interpreter because testing is immediate when the

compiling step is omitted. Another disadvantage of interpreters is that at least one must be present on

the computer during computer program execution. By contrast, compiled computer programs need no

compiler present during execution.

No properties of a programming language require it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively

interpreted. The categorization usually reflects the most popular method of language execution. For

example, BASIC is thought of as an interpreted language and C a compiled language, despite the

existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters. Some systems use just-in-time compilation (JIT)

whereby sections of the source are compiled 'on the fly' and stored for subsequent executions.

Self-modifying programs

A computer program in execution is normally treated as being different from the data the program

operates on. However, in some cases this distinction is blurred when a computer program modifies

itself. The modified computer program is subsequently executed as part of the same program. Self-

modifying code is possible for programs written in machine code, assembly

language, Lisp, C, COBOL, PL/1, Prolog and JavaScript (the eval feature) among others.

Execution and storage

Typically, computer programs are stored in non-volatile memory until requested either directly or

indirectly to beexecuted by the computer user. Upon such a request, the program is loaded

into random access memory, by a computer program called an operating system, where it can be

accessed directly by the central processor. The central processor then executes ("runs") the program,

instruction by instruction, until termination. A program in execution is called a process.[6]  Termination

is either by normal self-termination or by error — software or hardware error.

Embedded programs

The microcontroller on the right of thisUSB flash drive is controlled with embedded firmware.

Some computer programs are embedded into hardware. A stored-program computer requires an initial

computer program stored in its read-only memory to boot. The boot process is to identify and initialize

all aspects of the system, from processor registers to device controllers to memorycontents.

[7]  Following the initialization process, this initial computer program loads the operating system and

sets the program counter to begin normal operations. Independent of the host computer, a hardware

devicemight have embedded firmware to control its operation. Firmware is used when the computer

program is rarely or never expected to change, or when the program must not be lost when the power

is off.[8]

Manual programming

Switches for manual input on a Data General Nova 3

Computer programs historically were manually input to the central processor via switches. An

instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings. After setting the configuration, an

execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated. Computer programs also historically

were manually input via paper tape or punched cards. After the medium was loaded, the starting

address was set via switches and the execute button pressed.[9]

Automatic program generation

Generative programming is a style of computer programming that createssource

code through generic classes, prototypes, templates, aspects, andcode generators to

improve programmer productivity. Source code is generated with programming tools such as

a template processor or an integrated development environment. The simplest form of source code

generator is a macro processor, such as the C preprocessor, which replaces patterns in source code

according to relatively simple rules.

Software engines output source code or markup code  that simultaneously become the input to

another computer process. Application servers are software engines that deliver applications to client

computers. For example, a Wiki is an application server that lets users build dynamic

content assembled from articles. Wikis generate HTML, CSS, Java, and JavaScript which are

then interpreted by a web browser.

Simultaneous execution

See also: Process (computing) and Multiprocessing

Many operating systems support multitasking which enables many computer programs to appear to

run simultaneously on one computer. Operating systems may run multiple programs through process

scheduling — a software mechanism to switch the CPU among processes often so users

can interact with each program while it runs.[10]  Within hardware, modern day multiprocessor

computers or computers with multicore processors may run multiple programs.[11]

One computer program can calculate simultaneously more than one operation using threads or

separate processes.Multithreading processors are optimized to execute multiple threads efficiently.

Functional categories

Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines. The main functional categories

are system softwareand application software. System software includes the operating system which

couples computer hardware with application software.[12]  The purpose of the operating system is to

provide an environment in which application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner.

[12]  In addition to the operating system, system software includes utility programs that help manage

and tune the computer. If a computer program is not system software then it is application software.

Application software includes middleware, which couples the system software with the user interface.

Application software also includes utility programs that help users solve application problems, like the

need for sorting.

Sometimes development environments for software development are seen as a functional category on

its own, especially in the context of human-computer interaction and programming language design.

Development environments gather system software (such as compilers and system's batch

processing scripting languages) and application software (such as IDEs) for the specific purpose of

helping programmers create new programs.

Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/computer-program#ixzz2CLXVFmzC

Importance of Computer ProgrammingBy David Gitonga, eHow Contributor

Computer programming has numerous benefits.

Developing a program involves a series of steps. The programmer defines a problem, plans a solution, codes the program, tests the program and, finally, documents the program. Usually, the programmer defines what he knows and the objective, selects a program to use, debugs the program in stages after completion to ensure no errors are introduced and then documents the design, development and testing of the program. With the ever-changing face of computer technology, programming is an exciting and always challenging environment that few programmers ever dream of leaving.

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1. Systems Knowledgeo Computer programmers have a full understanding of the how and why of

computer systems, including system limitations, and can set realistic expectations and work around those limitations to fully maximize the use of the equipment and its accessories.

Creativity Platform

o Programming is a platform to showcase creativity, especially in problem-solving and entertainment. Programming develops new video games, graphics and animations to showcase new business ideas or to resolve a particular problem.

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Interactive Educationo Programming, especially in web development, has allowed new interactive web

applications that have access to system resources and provide the same level of control as desktop applications. Used on online learning platforms, these applications have allowed distance-learning programs to take off. Today, almost all major learning institutions have some form of online learning implementation, thanks to computer programming.

Defining The Futureo Computer programming principles implemented today will likely influence how

technologies such as voice-recognition, artificial intelligence and other sophisticated technologies will change in the future and how they will be applied to our day-to-day lives. For example, the trend toward automating Internet searches and purchases to be more localized is ongoing. While the hardware platforms developed will play a major role, computer technology will likely be at the center of it all and programming future systems will be an important aspect.

Machine Languageo Since computers work with numbers, programming allows a person to

represent machine-language in human-readable format. This reduces the chances of introducing errors and wasted time in debugging and correcting mistakes.

Read more: Importance of Computer Programming | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_6702840_importance-computer-programming.html#ixzz2CLXq58Lt

Computer Programming Flowchart Symbols

Friday, June 19, 2009 at 8:57 PM Posted by JohFreeks

What is a flowchart?

A flow chart is a graphical representation of a process or system that details the sequencing of steps required to

create output. A typical flow chart uses a set of basic symbols to represent various functions, and shows the

sequence and interconnection of functions with lines and arrows. Each flow chart is concerned with one

particular process or system. It begins with the input of data or materials into the system and traces all the

procedures needed to convert the input into its final output form.

Flow chart symbols

Flowcharting symbols are dynamic and their meanings continue to grow and change depending on who uses them.

Although standards have been established, people deviate from these standards to suit their own needs. In many

cases, individual companies develop standards for their internal use. Here is some list of most commonly used

computerprogramming flowchart symbols.

Terminal - indicate the flowchart's starting and ending points.

Process - depicts a process such as a mathematical computation, or a variable assignment.

Input/Output Symbol - represents data that is available for input or resulting fromprocessing.

Connector (on-page connector) - Sometimes a flowchart is broken into two or more smaller flowcharts. This is

usually done when a flowchart does not fit on a single page, or must be divided into sections. A connector symbol,

which is a small circle with a letter or number inside it, allows you to connect two flowcharts on the same page.

Off-page connector - A connector symbol that looks like a pocket on a shirt, allows you to connect to a flowchart on

a different page.

Decision - The diamond is used to represent the true/false statement being tested in a decision symbol.

Flow lines - Note: The default flow is left to right and top to bottom. To save time arrowheads are often only drawn

when the flow lines go contrary the normal.

Subroutine - The computer temporarily runs the instructions in the subroutine and then returns to

the instruction immediately following the subroutine call. Flowcharts for subroutines can be on different pages than

the flowchart for the main program.

Uses of Flowcharts:

Documenting process and interrelationship of process steps.

Identifying actual and ideal paths that any data flows.

Identifying the problems and potential improvements of the system or program.

Here are some examples of flowcharting:

1. Draw a flowchart to find the sum of first 30 natural numbers.

Answer:

2. Draw a flowchart to find the largest of three numbers A, B, and C.

Answer:

Flowcharting Tips:

Chart the process the way it is really occurring. Do not document the way a writtenprocess or a manager thinks

the process happens. People typically modify existing processes to enable a more efficient process. If the desired

or theoretical process is charted, problems with the existing process will not be recognized and no improvement

can be made.

Note all circumstances actually dealt with. If the operations described on the chart don't happen as charted all the

time, note the exceptions on the chart. Is the part or report generated in the process always available when

needed or is there sometimes a delay?

Important assumptions and details should be noted on flow such as special training or assumed knowledge,

special procedural requirements, time limitations, etc. to ensure awareness of all these issues when analyzing

a process for changes.

Where process improvements are time-based, collect data on the "standard" or "typical" time it takes for each

step in the process and note each time on the flowchart at each step.

Test the flowchart by trying to follow the chart to perform the process charted. If there is a problem performing the

operation as charted, note any differences and modify the chart to correct. A better approach would be to have

someone unfamiliar with theprocess try to follow the flow chart and note questions or problems found.

Include mental steps in the process such as decisions. These steps are sometimes left out because of familiarity

with the process, however, represents sources of problems due to a possible lack of training or information used

to make the decision can be inadequte or incorrect if performed by a different person.