Ancient Greek

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Ancient Greek 1 Ancient Greek Ancient Greek Ἑλληνική Hellēnikḗ Region eastern Mediterranean Era developed into Koiné Greek by the 4th century BC Language family Indo-European Hellenic Ancient Greek Writing system Greek alphabet Language codes ISO 639-2 grc ISO 639-3 grc (includes all pre-Modern stages) Map of Homeric Greece Beginning of Homer's Odyssey Ancient Greek is the form of Greek used during the periods of time spanning c. the 9th 6th century BC (known as Archaic), c. the 5th 4th century BC (Classical), and c. the 3rd century BC 6th century AD (Hellenistic) in ancient Greece and the ancient world. It was predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. The language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (common) or Biblical Greek, while the language from the late period onward features no considerable differences from Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form, it closely resembled the Classical. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects. Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the West since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of

Transcript of Ancient Greek

Page 1: Ancient Greek

Ancient Greek 1

Ancient Greek

Ancient GreekἙλληνικήHellēnikḗ

Region eastern Mediterranean

Era developed into Koiné Greek by the 4th century BC

Language family Indo-European

•• Hellenic

•• Ancient Greek

Writing system Greek alphabet

Language codes

ISO 639-2 grc

ISO 639-3 grc (includes all pre-Modern stages)

Map of Homeric Greece

Beginning of Homer's Odyssey

Ancient Greek is the form of Greek usedduring the periods of time spanning c. the9th – 6th century BC (known as Archaic),c. the 5th – 4th century BC (Classical),and c. the 3rd century BC – 6th centuryAD (Hellenistic) in ancient Greece andthe ancient world. It was predated in the2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek.The language of the Hellenistic phase isknown as Koine (common) or BiblicalGreek, while the language from the lateperiod onward features no considerabledifferences from Medieval Greek. Koineis regarded as a separate historical stageof its own, although in its earlier form, it closely resembled the Classical. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of theclassic and earlier periods included several regional dialects.

Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the West since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of

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the language.

DialectsThe origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of the lackof contemporaneous evidence. There are several theories about what Hellenic dialect groups that may have existedbetween the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language. They have thesame general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period[1] is Mycenaean, butits relationship to the historical dialects and the historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groupsalready existed in some form.The major dialect groups of the Ancient Greek period can be assumed to have developed not later than 1120 BC, atthe time of the Dorian invasion(s), and their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th centuryBC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to the historical Dorians;moreover, the invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regardedthemselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians.The Greeks of this period considered there to be three major divisions of all the Greek people—Dorians, Aeoliansand Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversightof Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cyprian, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division ofpeople and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation.One standard formulation for the dialects is:[2]

Distribution of ancient Greek dialectsGreek dialects in theClassical Greececlassical period.Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek

dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D.Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.

•• West Group

•• Northwest Greek•• Doric

•• Aeolic Group

•• Aegean/Asiatic Aeolic•• Thessalian•• Boeotian

•• Ionic-Attic Group

•• Attica•• Euboea and colonies in Italy•• Cyclades•• Asiatic Ionia

•• Arcadocypriot Greek

•• Arcadian•• Cypriot

West vs. non-west Greek is the strongest marked and earliest division, with non-west in subsets of Ionic-Attic (orAttic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcado-Cyprian, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cyprian vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-west is calledEast Greek.The Arcado-Cyprian group apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age.Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitionaldialect. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree.Pamphylian, spoken in a small area on the south-western coast of Asia Minor and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native

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influence.Ancient Macedonian was an Indo-European language closely related to Greek, but its exact relationship is unclearbecause of insufficient data: possibly a dialect of Greek; a sibling language to Greek; or a close cousin to Greek, andperhaps related to some extent, to Thracian and Phrygian languages. The Pella curse tablet is one of many finds thatsupport the idea that the Ancient Macedonian language is closely related to the Doric Greek dialect.Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and itssurrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric(including Cretan Doric), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian, the dialect of Sparta), and NorthernPeloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian).The Lesbian dialect was a member of the Aegean/Asiatic Aeolic sub-group.All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developedlocal characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects.The dialects outside the Ionic group are known mainly from inscriptions, notable exceptions being fragments of theworks of the poetess Sappho from the island of Lesbos and the poems of the Boeotian poet, Pindar.After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 300's BC, a new international dialect known as Koine orCommon Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek, but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowlyreplaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived to the present in the form of the Tsakoniandialect of Modern Greek, spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminationsinto most verbs of Demotic Greek. By about the 500's AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into MedievalGreek.

Sound changes

Greek alphabet

Αα Alpha Νν Nu

Ββ Beta Ξξ Xi

Γγ Gamma Οο Omicron

Δδ Delta Ππ Pi

Εε Epsilon Ρρ Rho

Ζζ Zeta Σσς Sigma

Ηη Eta Ττ Tau

Θθ Theta Υυ Upsilon

Ιι Iota Φφ Phi

Κκ Kappa Χχ Chi

Λλ Lambda Ψψ Psi

Μμ Mu Ωω Omega

History

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•• Archaic local variants

••••••

•• Diacritics•• Ligatures•• Numerals

• ϛ [6]• ϟ [90]• ϡ [900]

Use in other languages

•• Bactrian•• Coptic•• Albanian

Other topics

•• Scientific symbols

• Book• Category• Commons

•• v•• t• e [4]

See Proto-Greek for a description of sound changes from Proto-Indo-European up through attested Ancient Greek.

PhonologyThe pronunciation of Post-Classic Greek changed considerably from Ancient Greek, although the orthography stillreflects features of the older language (see W. Sidney Allen, Vox Graeca – a guide to the pronunciation of ClassicalGreek). For a detailed description on the phonology changes from Ancient to Hellenistic periods of the Greeklanguage, see the article on Koine Greek.The examples below are intended to represent Attic Greek in the 5th century BC. Although ancient pronunciationcan never be reconstructed with certainty, Greek in particular is very well documented from this period, and there islittle disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represented.

Phonemic inventory

Consonants

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Bilabial Dental Velar Glottal

Nasal μ m ν n ν, γ (ŋ)

Plosive voiced β b δ d γ ɡ

voiceless π p τ t κ k

aspirated φ pʰ θ tʰ χ kʰ

Fricative σ s h

Trill ρ r

Lateral λ l

[ŋ] occurred as an allophone of /n/ used before velars and as an allophone of /ɡ/ before nasals. /r/ was probablyvoiceless when word-initial (written ῥ)

Vowels

Front Back

unrounded rounded

Close ι i iː υ y yː

Close-mid ε ει e eː ο ου o oː

Open-mid η ɛː ω ɔː

Open α a aː

/oː/ raised to [uː], probably by the 4th century BC.

Sound changes

Assimilation

In verb conjugation, one consonant often comes up against the other. Various sandhi rules apply.Rules:• Most basic rule: When two sounds appear next to each other, the first assimilates in voicing and aspiration to the

second.•• This applies fully to stops. Fricatives assimilate only in voicing, sonorants do not assimilate.

•• Before an /s/ (future, aorist stem), velars become [k], labials become [p], and dentals disappear.• Before a /tʰ/ (aorist passive stem), velars become [kʰ], labials become [pʰ], and dentals become [s].• Before an /m/ (perfect middle first-singular, first-plural, participle), velars become [ɡ], nasal+velar becomes [ɡ],

labials become [m], dentals become [s], other sonorants remain the same.

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Compensatory lengthening

Certain vowels historically underwent compensatory lengthening in certain contexts. /a/ sometimes lengthened to[aː] or [ɛː], and /e/ and /o/ become the closed values [eː] and [oː] and the open ones [ɛː] and [ɔː] depending on timeperiod.

Vowel shift

The Proto-Greek long vowel /aː/ was shifted to [ɛː] in the Attic dialect, except after /e i r/. In the Ionic dialect, itshifted in all environments, but in Doric and Aeolic, it did not shift at all.

Morphology

Ostracon bearing the name of Cimon, Stoa ofAttalos

Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages, is highlyinflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation ofProto-Indo-European forms. In Ancient Greek nouns (including propernouns) have five cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative andvocative), three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and threenumbers (singular, dual and plural). Verbs have four moods(indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and optative), three voices (active,middle and passive), as well as three persons (first, second and third)and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through sevencombinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):the present, future and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist (perfective aspect); a present perfect,pluperfect and future perfect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no futuresubjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. There are infinitives andparticiples corresponding to the finite combinations of tense, aspect and voice.

AugmentThe indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least) a prefix /e-/, called the augment. This was probablyoriginally a separate word, meaning something like "then," added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectualmeaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect and pluperfect, but not to any of the otherforms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist).There are two kinds of augment in Greek, syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment is added to stemsbeginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r, however, add er). The quantitativeaugment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel:• a, ā, e, ē → ē• i, ī → ī• o, ō → ō• u, ū → ū• ai → ēi• ei → ēi or ei• oi → ōi• au → ēu or au• eu → ēu or eu• ou → ouSome verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei. The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels. In verbs with a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the

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word, but between the prefix and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσέβαλoν in theaorist.Following Homer's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry, especially epic poetry.The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below.

ReduplicationAlmost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (Notethat a few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) There arethree types of reduplication:• Syllabic reduplication: Most verbs beginning with a single consonant, or a cluster of a stop with a sonorant, add a

syllable consisting of the initial consonant followed by e. An aspirated consonant, however, reduplicates in itsunaspirated equivalent: Grassmann's law.

•• Augment: Verbs beginning with a vowel, as well as those beginning with a cluster other than those indicatedpreviously (and occasionally for a few other verbs) reduplicate in the same fashion as the augment. This remainsin all forms of the perfect, not just the indicative.

• Attic reduplication: Some verbs beginning with an a, e or o, followed by a sonorant (or occasionally d or g),reduplicate by adding a syllable consisting of the initial vowel and following consonant, and lengthening thefollowing vowel. Hence er → erēr, an → anēn, ol → olōl, ed → edēd. This is not actually specific to Attic Greek,despite its name; but it was generalized in Attic. This originally involved reduplicating a cluster consisting of alaryngeal and sonorant; hence h₃l → h₃leh₃l → olōl with normal Greek development of laryngeals. (Forms with astop were analogous.)

Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab) has the perfect stem eilēpha(not *lelēpha) because it was originally slambanō, with perfect seslēpha, becoming eilēpha through compensatorylengthening.Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of theroot's initial consonant followed by i. A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs.

Writing systemAncient Greek was written in the Greek alphabet, with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written inboustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of Ancient Greektexts are usually written with accents and breathing marks, interword spacing, modern punctuation, and sometimesmixed case, but these were all introduced later.

Example textThe beginning of Homer's Iliad exemplifies the Archaic period of Ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for moredetails):The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from the Classical period of Ancient Greek:

Ὅτι μὲν ὑμεῖς, ὦ ἄνδρες Άθηναῖοι, πεπόνθατε ὑπὸ τῶν ἐμῶν κατηγόρων, οὐκ οἶδα: ἐγὼ δ' οὖν καὶ αὐτὸςὑπ' αὐτῶν ὀλίγου ἐμαυτοῦ ἐπελαθόμην, οὕτω πιθανῶς ἔλεγον. Καίτοι ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲνεἰρήκασιν.

Transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme:Hóti mèn humeîs, ô ándres Athēnaîoi, pepónthate hupò tôn emôn katēgórōn, ouk oîda: egṑ d' oûn kaì autòshup' autōn olígou emautoû epelathómēn, hoútō pithanôs élegon. Kaítoi alēthés ge hōs épos eipeîn oudèneirḗkasin.

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Using the IPA:hóti men hyméː̀s, ɔ́ː̀ ándres atʰɛːnáì̯i̯oi, pepóntʰate hypo tɔ́ː̀n emɔ́ː̀n katɛːɡórɔːn, uːk óì̯da; eɡɔː dúː̀n kai̯ au̯toshyp au̯tɔ́ː̀n olíɡuː emau̯túː̀ epelatʰómɛːn, huː́tɔː pitʰanɔ́ː̀s éleɡon. kaí̯toi̯ alɛːtʰéz ɡe hɔːs épos eːpéː̀n uːdeneːrɛː́kasin.

Translated into English:What you, men of Athens, have learned from my accusers, I do not know: but I, for my part, nearly forgot whoI was thanks to them, since they spoke so persuasively. And yet, of the truth, they have spoken, one might say,nothing at all.

Modern use

The words ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ as they are inscribedon the marble of the 1955 Leonidas Monument at

Thermopylae

The study of Ancient Greek in European countries in addition to Latinoccupied an important place in the syllabus from the Renaissance untilthe beginning of the 20th century. Ancient Greek is still taught as acompulsory or optional subject especially at traditional or elite schoolsthroughout Europe, such as public schools and grammar schools in theUnited Kingdom. It is compulsory in the Liceo classico in Italy, in thegymnasium in the Netherlands, in some classes in Austria, in Croatia inklasicna gimnazija and it is optional in the HumanistischesGymnasium in Germany (usually as a third language after Latin andEnglish, from the age of 14 to 18). In 2006/07, 15,000 pupils studiedAncient Greek in Germany according to the Federal Statistical Officeof Germany, and 280,000 pupils studied it in Italy. Ancient Greek isalso taught at most major universities worldwide, often combined with Latin as part of Classics. It will also be taughtin state primary schools in the UK, to boost children’s language skills,[5][6][7] and will be offered as a foreignlanguage to pupils in all primary schools from 2014 as part of a major drive to boost education standards, togetherwith Latin, Mandarin, French, German, Spanish, and Italian.[8] Ancient Greek is also taught as a compulsory subjectin Gymnasia and Lykia in Greece.[9][10]

Ancient Greek is often used in the coinage of modern technical terms in the European languages: see English wordsof Greek origin.Modern authors rarely write in Ancient Greek, though Jan Křesadlo wrote some poetry and prose in the language,and some volumes of Asterix have been written in Attic Greek[11] and Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone hasbeen translated into Ancient Greek.[12] Alfred Rahlfs included a preface, a short history of the Septuagint text, andother front matter translated into Ancient Greek in his 1935 edition of the Septuagint; Robert Hanhart also includedthe introductory remarks to the 2006 revised Rahlfs–Hanhart edition in the language as well.[13]

Ancient Greek is also used by organizations and individuals, mainly Greek, who wish to denote their respect,admiration or preference for the use of this language. This use is sometimes considered graphical, nationalistic orfunny. In any case, the fact that modern Greeks can still wholly or partly understand texts written in non-archaicforms of ancient Greek shows the affinity of modern Greek language to its ancestral predecessor.[14]

An isolated community near Trabzon, Turkey, an area where Pontic Greek is spoken, has been found to speak avariety of Greek that has parallels, both structurally and in its vocabulary, to Ancient Greek not present in othervarieties.[15] As few as 5,000 people speak the dialect but linguists believe that it is the closest living language toAncient Greek.[16][17]

Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in scientificterminology.

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References[1] Imprecisely attested and somewhat reconstructive due to its being written in an ill-fitting syllabary (Linear B).[2] This one appears in recent versions of the Encyclopædia Britannica, which also lists the major works that define the subject.[3] Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, p. 51.[4] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Greek_alphabet_sidebar& action=edit[5] Ancient Greek 'to be taught in state schools' (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ education/ educationnews/ 7917191/

Ancient-Greek-to-be-taught-in-state-schools. html)[6] "Primaries go Greek to help teach English" (http:/ / www. educationnews. org/ global/ 97078. html) - Education News - 30 July 2010.[7] "Now look, Latin's fine, but Greek might be even Beta" (http:/ / www. tes. co. uk/ article. aspx?storycode=6052410) TES Editorial © 2010 -

TSL Education Ltd.[8] More primary schools to offer Latin and ancient Greek (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ education/ educationnews/ 9683536/

More-primary-schools-to-offer-Latin-and-ancient-Greek. html), The Telegraph, 26 November 2012[9] http:/ / www. fa3. gr/ phys_educ_2/ 33-orologio-programma-Gymnasiou. htm[10] http:/ / edu. klimaka. gr/ leitoyrgia-sxoleivn/ lykeio/ 755-wrologio-programma-genika-lykeia. html[11] Asterix speaks Attic (classical Greek) - Greece (ancient) (http:/ / www. asterix-obelix. nl/ index. php?page=manylanguages/ languages. inc&

lng=ae)[12] Areios Potēr kai ē tu philosophu lithos, Bloomsbury 2004, ISBN 1-58234-826-X[13] Rahlfs, Alfred, and Hanhart, Robert (eds.), Septuaginta, editio altera (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006).[14] Akropolis World News (http:/ / www. akwn. net/ ), and Tech news in Ancient Greek (http:/ / www. in. gr/ tech/ arxaia. asp)[15] Jason and the argot: land where Greek's ancient language survives (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ life-style/ history/

jason-and-the-argot-land-where-greeks-ancient-language-survives-2174669. html), The Independent, 3 January 2011[16] Against all odds: archaic Greek in a modern world (http:/ / www. research-horizons. cam. ac. uk/ features/

-p-against-all-odds--archaic-greek-in-a-modern-world--p-. aspx), University of Cambridge[17] Archaic Greek in a modern world (https:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=UcAYP4irSyQ) video from Cambridge University, on YouTube

Further reading• P. Chantraine (1968), Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/

Dictionnaire-Etymologique-Grec), Klincksieck, Paris.• Athenaze A series of textbooks on Ancient Greek published for school use• Hansen, Hardy and Quinn, Gerald M. (1992) Greek: An Intensive Course (http:/ / books. google. com/ books/

about/ Greek. html?id=T9Gi7jYCxegC), Fordham University Press• Easterling, P & Handley, C. Greek Scripts: An illustrated introduction. London: Society for the Promotion of

Hellenic Studies, 2001. ISBN 0-902984-17-9

External links• Online Greek resources (http:/ / www. tododiccionarios. com/ rosetta/ griego. html) Dictionaries, grammar, virtual

libraries, fonts, etc.• Alpheios (http:/ / www. alpheios. net) Combines LSJ, Autenrieth, Smyth's grammar and inflection tables in a

browser add-on for use on any web site.• Ancient Greek basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database (http:/ / starling. rinet. ru/ cgi-bin/ response.

cgi?root=new100& morpho=0& basename=new100\ier\grk& limit=-1)• Ancient Greek Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/

Appendix:Ancient_Greek_Swadesh_list) (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix (http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/wiki/ Appendix:Swadesh_lists))

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Grammar learning• A more extensive grammar of the Ancient Greek language written by J. Rietveld (http:/ / members. home. nl/

petjoeprietveld/ muomgram/ grammar/ )• Recitation of classics books (http:/ / www. rhapsodes. fll. vt. edu/ Greek. htm)• Perseus Greek dictionaries (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cache/ perscoll_PersInfo. html)• Greek-Language.com (http:/ / greek-language. com) Information on the history of the Greek language, application

of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek• Free Lessons in Ancient Greek, Bilingual Libraries, Forum (http:/ / www. ellopos. net/ elpenor/ greek-language.

asp)• A critical survey of websites devoted to Ancient Greek (http:/ / greekgrammar. wikidot. com)• Ancient Greek Tutorials (http:/ / socrates. berkeley. edu/ ~ancgreek/ ancient_greek_start. html) Berkeley

Language Center of the University of California• A Digital Tutorial For Ancient Greek Based on White's First Greek Book (http:/ / daedalus. umkc. edu/

FirstGreekBook/ index. html)• New Testament Greek (http:/ / www. ntgreek. net/ )• Acropolis World News (http:/ / www. akwn. net/ ) A summary of the latest world news in Ancient Greek, Juan

Coderch, University of St Andrews

Classical texts• Perseus Greek and Roman Materials (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cache/ perscoll_Greco-Roman. html)• Ancient Greek Texts (http:/ / www. mikrosapoplous. gr/ en/ texts1en. htm)

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Article Sources and Contributors 11

Article Sources and ContributorsAncient Greek  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=605299513  Contributors: 069952497a, 3rdAlcove, 88888, A3 nm, A930913, Abanima, Abrasax108, Ace of Spades,Acroterion, Adam Bishop, Aelfan1, Aeusoes1, Afro-Eurasian, Aitias, Akhilleus, Alansohn, Alcadies, Alessgrimal, Alex '05, Alexamena, Alexf, Algorithme, AllanBz, Allens, Alma Pater, And theworld died, Andonic, AndreasJS, Andres, Andrewman327, AngBent, Angr, Antandrus, Araignee, Argos'Dad, Arjun G. Menon, Arthana, Ashmedai 119, Atethnekos, Atomician, Avicennasis,Avono, AznBurger, Barbaar, Bejnar, Bender235, Benwing, BlackMansBurden, Blainster, Blanchardb, Bob A, Bobo192, Bomac, BorgQueen, Bruno Gripp, Budelberger, Burntsauce, Butros,C.Fred, Camo ice, Canisestmortis, Canterbury Tail, Canton japan, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Cclawara, Centpacrr, Cerealkiller13, Chanlyn, Charles Matthews, Choster, Chris the speller,Ciacchi, Ckoune, Cognate247, Comander Chaos, ConCompS, Coutasji, Cpl Syx, Cplakidas, Crazymadlover, Creft, Crònica, Cubicalbubble88, CuteHappyBrute, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DMacks,Danno uk, Danski14, Dantadd, Darana, Davidiad, Dbachmann, DeadEyeArrow, Delusion23, Denihilonihil, Deville, Dhnlin, Diana deaz, Diannaa, Dimboukas, DionysosProteus, DoSiDo,Dolphonia, Dominiktesla, Domitius, DoorsAjar, DopefishJustin, Doric Loon, Dougweller, Dovi, Dpr, Dragons flight, Drmies, Ducknish, Dumu Eduba, Duncan1, Dwo, Dylan Lake, E PluribusAnthony, Edgarglen, Effin, Egmontaz, Epbr123, Ericoides, Erutuon, Excirial, Facts707, Fanatix, Fenway4201912, FilipeS, Florian Blaschke, Fluffernutter, FlyHigh, Flyguy649, Fobizan,FokkerTISM, Fordsfords, Fraggle81, FrigidNinja, Fubajoe, Funandtrvl, Furkaocean, Furrykef, Future Perfect at Sunrise, G.a.ys are di$gusting!, GK1973, Garzo, Georgiou, Gerbrant, Giftlite,Gilgamesh, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Giorgos Tzimas, GnuDoyng, GokonSSJ5, GraemeL, Graham87, Grandin, Greatgavini, Greco22, Greekandlatin, Gstarst, Guive37, Gurch, Haidata, HalfShadow,Hans soplopuco, Haza-w, Hdh4241, Hectorian, Helikophis, Hello71, Henry Flower, HexaChord, Hippietrail, Hiya555hiya, Hmains, HomoLiteratus, Husond, Hvn0413, Hydrogen Iodide, Idaltu,Igiffin, Imaglang, Imz, In twilight, InverseHypercube, Invertzoo, Iridescent, Ishikawa Minoru, J.delanoy, JW1805, Jaai123, Jack Naven Rulez, Jackson Peebles, Jacob1207, Jaimie Henry,Jakehey, JamesBWatson, Jan Kaninchen, Jdaloner, Jeffrd10, JerryFriedman, JesseW, Jhbuk, Jiao Zoeng chong, Jim250, JimWae, Jimbolino2000, Jmundo, JoanneB, John Cline, JorisvS, JosephSolis in Australia, Josyboy, Jr8825, Jts010011, Julian Mendez, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, Jusjih, Jwmorris121, KJS77, Kaisershatner, Kalogeropoulos, Karmosin, Katalaveno, Kjaergaard,Klilidiplomus, Klubnick, Klundarr, Kmsiever, Koavf, Krich, Kukini, Kwamikagami, KylieTastic, LDHan, Lacrimosus, Lakers, Lcarscad, Lele giannoni, Lfdder, Lightmouse, Linkinparklover12,LittleOldMe, Loyalist Cannons, Lpsickle, LucienneRieux, Lucinos, Lupin, MC10, MER-C, Macedonian, Macrakis, Magicalsaumy, Mainquick3, Majorly, Marco9673, Marcus Munitions,Marek69, Markmc, Materialscientist, Mato, Mavros, Maxboy123, Mayumashu, Mdaskal, Megistias, Melenc, Merube 89, Messesupstuff, MetsFan76, Mhardcastle, Michael Bednarek, MichaelHardy, Mikey112117, Minimac, Miskin, Modernist, Moxy, Mr. Guye, MrDolomite, Mrlagit25, MuZemike, MusikAnimal, Muspilli, Must be the best, Mwpalmer, NJPharris, Nakon, Nema Fakei,Neswtuop, Never give in, Niceguyedc, Nihiltres, NikoSilver, Nipisiquit, Nlu, Nmajdan, Noelleskie, Nomad Bro, Norm mit, Notesenses, NuclearWarhead, Oatmeal batman, Oda Mari, Oliphaunt,Omnipaedista, Orc 455, Orphan Wiki, Oxymoron83, Pani0202, Paul August, Pax:Vobiscum, Perkeleperkele, Petrb, Phantomsteve, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Philafrenzy, Philip Stevens, Phillyboy92, Philx, Piano non troppo, Picenzo56, Pigman, Pinethicket, Piogre, PlatonPlotin, Pmanderson, Poop123098, Possum, RA0808, RG2, RJC, RJaguar3, Radagast3, Raeky, Rapidspace1232123,Rappelle-toi, Rawling, Raystorm, Rcsprinter123, Reaper Eternal, RedRabbit1983, Redmarkviolinist, ResearchRave, Rich Farmbrough, Rickterp, Ringsjöodjuren, Rmosler2100, Rnabet, Robth,Rodasmith, RokasT, Ronhjones, Ross Burgess, RoyBoy, Rror, RuM, Rushtonau, Ryulong, Saforrest, Salt Yeung, Sardanaphalus, Savant-fou, ScaldingHotSoup, Scarian, SchfiftyThree,Selenagomezturtle101, Shiftmain7, Silvrous, Skarebo, Skizzik, Slayerteez, Slimjim1999, Snowolf, SoCalSuperEagle, Solarra, Spencer, Spicemix, Stefan Kühn, Steinbach, Steve2011, StevenZhang, Stevey7788, StradivariusTV, SummerWithMorons, Supergrunch, Superr07, Suruena, Syncategoremata, TTGL, Tatiana24, Tbhotch, Tempodivalse, Tha Godly Beast, Thanatos666,TheNewPhobia, TheRanger, Thingg, Thrax, Thulium, Tofergofer, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tomisti, Tonym88, Tosun, Tot12, Touch Of Light, Traqwe, Treisijs, Trevor MacInnis, TutterMouse,Twthmoses, Untilarea22, Urggatys, Vega84, Versus22, VinnyMendoza, Vrenator, WLU, Wachowich, WanderSage, Warren, Wavelength, Wayward, Wbm1058, What1993, Whatsup6798,Whiyufghj, Why Not A Duck, Widefox, Wikieditor3000, Wikitumnus, Wikiwikiwiki444, Wildmanofthewoods, Will Oga Booga, William Avery, WolfmanSF, Woteva, Wtmitchell, Y-barton,Yannos, Yolgnu, Zachsass, Zakronian, Zargulon, Zenohockey, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, Σ, 123הסיסמא, გიგა, 司 徒 天, 754 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Homeric Greece.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Homeric_Greece.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: PinpinImage:Beginning Odyssey.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beginning_Odyssey.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-PolImage:AncientGreekDialects (Woodard).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AncientGreekDialects_(Woodard).svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fut.Perf.File:Greek alphabet alpha-omega.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_alphabet_alpha-omega.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Imz, Jgarcia, Kzman,Ouro, Str4nd, ThePCKid, Tiburom7, Петър Петров, 2 anonymous editsFile:Greek Digamma normal.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_Digamma_normal.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fut.Perf.File:Greek Eta tack.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_Eta_tack.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fut.Perf.File:Greek San slanted.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_San_slanted.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fut.Perf.File:Greek Koppa normal.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_Koppa_normal.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fut.Perf.File:Greek Sampi Ionian.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_Sampi_Ionian.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Future Perfect at SunriseFile:Greek Sigma 01.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_Sigma_01.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fut.Perf.File:Symbol book class2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Symbol_book_class2.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Lokal_ProfilFile:Folder Hexagonal Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Anomie, MifterFile:Commons-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Commons-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: AnomieFile:AGMA Ostrakon Cimon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AGMA_Ostrakon_Cimon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:MarsyasImage:Molon labe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Molon_labe.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Fkerasar

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