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CHAPTER 7

Conclusions

The composers included in this paper were born in Chinese-speaking localities: China,

Hong Kong, and Taiwan, where they all lived for many yearsChan for 16 years, Chen

for 20, Huang for 30, and Sheng for 27before coming to North America to study

composition. Since the completion of their studies, they have all remained in the United

States or Canada. My initial encounters around 200002 with the four clarinet works of

these composers discussed in this document provoked my interest in studying them

further and in exploring other clarinet works by Chinese classical composers. I wondered

whether certain compositional techniques and elements have been particularly favored by

Chinese composers, and how the composers backgrounds may have influenced their

works.

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, the composers included in this study and

several other Chinese composers are actively participating in the music scene in North

America.1Not all Chinese composers in North America are writing music that combines

Eastern and Western cultures. Yet many such composers have been searching for means

to write music that in some way takes their origins into account. The composers included

in this study are certainly among them. In spite of differences in style, they all

1 See the Music History section in chapter 2.

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incorporate Chinese elements in their works, reflecting the time they have spent in both

East and West.

Compositional Components and Approaches

Folksong vs. Motives

Music has always been an important part of Chinese culture. Each Chinese region or

ethnic group has its folksongs in the regional or ethnic dialect. Both Huang and Sheng

have used the Chinese folksongs they learned or collected in China as important elements

in their compositions.

Huang is a dedicated neo-Romantic composer who employs abundant Chinese

folk elements and pentatonic scales in his compositions. His orchestration and

harmonization are influenced by Russian nationalism and French impressionism. He has

always been an advocate of tonal music and has little interest in atonality, even after

studying in America and England. Most of his works are full of flowing pentatonic

melodies and ear-pleasing harmonies, essential components of the Capriccio.

Sheng also uses Chinese folksongs frequently in his compositions. Some of the

folksongs, however, are in heptatonic rather than pentatonic scales. His Concertino is

polymodal, woven from multi-layered melodies in various Chinese modes. Sheng usually

adopts only fragments from a folksong rather than quoting an entire melody. He would

also make up his melodies based on the characteristics of a folksong. He also uses

intervallic patterns and pitch-class sets in his composition. Dissonant sonorities (from the

point of view of Western music) are frequent in his works.

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Neither ChansAmong Friends nor Chens Twice Removedincludes folksong

segments. Nevertheless, Chan and Chen demonstrate their adeptness in motivic

development. In a broader sense, both works can be defined as theme and variations.

The motives, composed of certain intervals or scales, are manipulated and transformed

into a variety of patterns. InAmong Friends, Chan uses perfect fifths, minor thirds, minor

sevenths (and their inversions), and descending scales as the skeleton of the music.

Harmonic series and Chinese pentatonic scales also play important roles in some sections.

Chen does not include pentatonic scales in her Twice Removed. Instead, the piece dwells

on the opening dyads and the intervals derived from them (seconds and thirds). Stepwise

motion, wide leaps, and embellishment are the main components of the piece. Through

timbre and register changes and a variety of articulation in the clarinet, Chen creates a

work full of Chinese character without using pentatonic scales.

Chinese Cultural Influences

The four works included in this study reflect Chinese culture through music in various

ways. Unquestionably, one of the most direct ways to learn the culture of an ethnic group

is to study its folksongs. The folksong materials used in the Capriccio and the Concertino

present not only pentatonic or heptatonic melodies, but also traditions of certain regions

in China (see chapters 5 and 6).

Folk music varies in tempo to a large extent because it reflects the daily lives and

feelings of common people. An uplifting feeling common in Chinese folk music, for

instance, is captured in the quick tempo sections in both the Capriccio and the

Concertino (see Examples 71 and 72). The rhythmic patterns (composed mainly of

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eighth notes and sixteenth notes), the articulation (the passages are articulated every beat),

and the phrase structure are the most important similarities between these two examples.

The particular character produced by the rhythmic patterns is often likened to galloping

on a vast prairie, an everyday activity in the Central Plain and northern areas of China

and a familiar subject in Chinese music.

Example 71. An-Lun Huang, Capriccio, mm. 193202, clarinet part.

Example 72. Bright Sheng, Concertino, 3rd

movement, mm. 7480, clarinet part.

There are, of course, many other components of Chinese culture that may be integrated

into a piece of music and make the music sound or feel Chinese, for example:

Chinese languages, music (instrumental, Peking opera, folksongs, art songs), literature,

philosophy, aesthetics, and fine arts. Some parts of Twice RemovedandAmong Friends

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are good illustrations of music influenced by cultural components other than folksongs.

The contemplative nature and the slow sections of the works reflect Chinese culture and

the unmistakable influence of Chinese art music.

A large number of Chinese musical works are in a slow tempo. The reason for this

has to do with traditional Chinese aesthetics. In Confuciuss time, art music was

considered by intellectuals as a means to cultivate ones temperament and gain

inspiration rather than as a form of entertainment.2 Music for intellectuals from that

period is therefore mostly slow in tempo and calm and meditative in character. Instances

of this type of music include the sections from C to G and T to W inAmong Friends

as well as the beginning and ending (mm. 120 and 14059) of Twice Removed. In

addition to tempo and character, these sections are also comparable in their approach to

timbre. Timbral variation, originating in Chinese languages and singing, has long been an

important technique for Chinese music performers. A particular atmosphere and character

for each section are conveyed through the manipulations of sound (dynamics, timbre,

articulation, intensity, etc.), particularly on the long tones and grace notes.3

Because of their characteristically Chinese elements, the works included in this

study are distinguishable from music by Western composers. The above discussion is not

meant to suggest that non-Chinese composers could not create music of Chinese

character or that non-Chinese clarinetists could not play music by Chinese composers

well. But in order to do so, they would have to steep themselves in Chinese culture.

2

The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd

ed., s.v. China, II: History and Theory:2. Antiquity to the Warring States Period, by Joseph S. C. Lam.

3 See Chinese Influence (pp. 2627) in chapter 3 and Performance Suggestions (pp. 4346) in

chapter 4.

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The Use of the Clarinet

While Chen and Huang treat the clarinet mainly as a melodic instrument, Chan and

Sheng view the instrument as one that can also produce a variety of sound effects, such as

glissandi, flutter tonguing, and pitch bends. What constitute special effects for the clarinet

are commonly used in Chinese traditional music on the d(bamboo flute) and on string

instruments such as the zither, rh, andpipa (flutter tonguing would be equivalent to

tremolo). In addition, all four composers consider a singing quality an important

characteristic of the clarinet: they use the clarinet to simulate the inflections in Chinese

singing and speaking. A common feature among these four pieces is using grace notes to

capture the intonation of the Chinese language. An upward grace note simulates the

second tone (), and a downward one the fourth tone ().

In the Capriccio, the clarinet is given two characters: a more lyrical, poetic one in

the first part (mm. 1102) and a more articulated, rhythmic, and vigorous one in the

second (mm. 102284). The piece is written idiomatically within the comfortable range

of the clarinet between E3 and F#6 (written pitches), although there are a couple of

troublesome passages in the second part if played on the Bb clarinet. The use of rhythmic

patterns and sequences (often pentatonic) helps the player adapt to the work easily. No

special technique is required in the piece. Nevertheless, it is not easy to capture the lusty

character of the folksong quotation in the second part (for suggestions, see pp. 6062).

The Concertino is the most technically challenging among these four works,

requiring pitch bends, flutter tonguing, and rapid finger movement. The clarinet writing

ranges from E3 to C7 (written pitches), the entire compass for most advanced clarinetists.

Sheng uses the altissimo range frequently to emulate the sonorous, high-pitched voice in

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folksongs. The fast articulation for the large interval jumps in the second movement is

technically demanding. The lyrical parts in the first and third movements display the

clarinets ability to sing the folksong-like melodies, while the fleeting triplets in the

second movement demonstrate the instruments dexterity. The fast switching between the

Bb

clarinet and A in the first and second movements might be problematic. In addition,

the flutter-tongued high notes, such as Ab6, A6, and B

b6 (written pitches), could be

difficult for many players.

The clarinet part toAmong Friends is also idiomatically written within the range

between E3 and B

b

6 (written pitches). The altissimo As and B

b

s are used cautiously,

simply to emphasize the high points. The clarinet writing is mostly in Western style,

based on motivic development of the opening theme. The grace notes, trills, pitch bends,

and glissandi incorporated in the piece bring out both the characteristics of the clarinet

and, in certain sections, the Chinese musical style. Pentatonic scales are successfully

integrated in the clarinet part at the end of the piece. The clarinet displays its vigor and

agility in the runs (e.g., KL and XA) as well as its smoothness and velvety sound in

the lyrical melodies (e.g., CG).

After the New York premiere, Allan Kozinn wrote about Twice Removedin a

review for The New York Times, this concert work is ruminative and involving, and

draws in the listener through a process of gradual thematic metamorphosis. It also makes

ample technical demands, moving through the instrument's range and natural coloration

without forcing it into unattractive timbres.4

These comments well describe the nature of

Twice Removed. The compass of the piece is from F3 to G6 (written pitches), certain

4 Allan Kozinn, Young Performers, and Sounds of Taiwan,New York Times, 19 June 2003, Late

EditionFinal, sec. E, column 1, p. 5.

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passages being taken down an octave to expand the range of the original saxophone

version. Some musical ideas and articulations come from the sound of thepipa, although

it is not necessary, according to Chen, to simulate that instruments technique on the

clarinet. There are many wide leaps across octaves in the section from mm. 79 to 105. In

the climax of the piece (mm. 10620), Chen exploits the altissimo register of the clarinet

to make great tonal contrasts with the preceding and following sections. In addition, the

clarion and chalumeau registers of the clarinet are skillfully used to portray a

contemplative mood in the rest of the piece.

Coda

Although different in many respects such as style, compositional components, difficulty,

and instrumentation, in my opinion all four works are very well written. They deserve

attention from anyone who is interested in high-quality clarinet music as well as in music

by Chinese composers. Each piece has its own character. These works, of course, do not

represent the styles of every Chinese composer living in North America. Nevertheless,

they reflect four compositional styles of contemporary Chinese composers who

successfully integrate Oriental and Occidental culture. In studying these four works, I

have found that: (1) melody is an essential part in all of them; (2) not all the works

employ sound effects, but when they are used they enrich the music and add Chinese

character; (3) folk materials are the most immediate sources, but not the only ones; (4)

Chinese character can be conveyed not only through the customary pentatonic scale (as in

Among Friends and the Capriccio), but through a heptatonic scale (the Concertino) or

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even atonality (Twice Removed); (5) the clarinet can be used to express Chinese music

styles and character adequately; and (6) cross-cultural composition can be successful.

Western compositional methods, Western music theory, and clarinet techniques

have been serving as ways for contemporary Chinese composers, including Chan, Chen,

Huang, and Sheng, to organize their works and express their musical ideas. But what

makes these four composers special is that they have captured the tonal characteristics of

the clarinet and used them effectively to convey their individual musical ideas. At the

beginning of the twenty-first century, we clarinetists are fortunate to have several

wonderful works in our repertoire that represent ethnicity. I hope there will be more

people interested in music by Chinese composers, more composers in North America

exploring and integrating Eastern and Western cultures, and more composers writing

good-quality, idiomatic music for the clarinet.