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LI NI U Cun T in Chnh sch Thng mi Quc t song ng Anh-Vit c D n MUTRAP giai on ko di xut bn ln u vo nm 2003. Cun sch gip bn c lm quen vi nhng thut ng lin quan n T chc Thng mi Th gii (WTO). Nhm p ng nhu cu ngy cng tng ca bn c, D n MUTRAP giai on II xin trn trng gii thiu cun sch c ti bn ti cc c quan Chnh ph, cc t chc doanh nghip, nghin cu v cng chng Vit Nam ni chung. Chng ti tin rng cun sch cng s gip cng ng doanh nghip Vit Nam gii p nhng bn khon v tc ng ca WTO sau khi Vit Nam gia nhp t chc ny. Chng ti hy vng cun sch cng s c s dng trong cc kho o to v chnh sch thng mi v Lut thng mi quc t ca cc trng i hc v cc c s o to ti Vit Nam. Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n tc gi Trn Thanh Hi v cc cng s cho php D n ti bn cun sch ny.

FOREWORD

The English-Vietnamese Dictionary on International Trade Policy was first published by MUTRAP Extension in 2003. It has been very popular for familiarizing readers with WTO-related terms. In response to the continued high demand of our constituency, MUTRAP II decided to republish the book and make it available for interested members of government bodies, business organizations and academia as well as the public at large. We are convinced that the dictionary will be similarly useful in the post-WTO accession period as the business community is expected to turn their attention to the implications of Vietnams WTO membership on their activities. The publication may facilitate finding the correct answers to their questions. We hope that the dictionary can also be used by universities and other institutions in their training syllabus trade policy and international trade law courses. We would like to sincerely thank the author, Mr. Tran Thanh Hai and his collaborators for permitting the Project to republish the book.

Trn trng

Peter Naray

Trng nhm chuyn gia Chu u Trn Th Thu Hng

Gim c D n

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LI CM N

T in Chnh sch Thng mi quc t do nhm cc chuyn gia ca B Thng mi v U ban Quc gia v Hp tc Kinh t quc t bin son da trn Cun T in cc thut ng thng mi quc t ca tc gi Walter Goode do WTO v nh xut bn ca i hc Cambridge pht hnh. D n MUTRAP xin cm n s cng tc ca ng Trn Thanh Hi, ng Trn ng Phng, b Thu Hng vi vai tr hiu nh; ng Nguyn Hu Anh, ng Trnh Minh Anh, ng T Cn, b Hong Th Lin, b Phm Qunh Mai v b Trn Phng Lan vi vai tr bin dch. ng thi, D n cng chn thnh cm n U ban chu u h tr ti chnh cho vic xut bn n phm ny.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This Glossary of International Trade Policy Terms was compiled by a group of experts in the Ministry of Trade, Vietnam and the National Committee of International Economic Cooperation, on the basis of the earlier Dictionary of Trade Policy Terms by Walter Goode, published by the WTO, also available from Cambridge University Press. The MUTRAP acknowledges with thanks the contributions of Mr. Tran Thanh Hai, Mr. Tran Dong Phuong, Mrs. Do Thu Huong as editors and Mr. Nguyen Huu Anh, Mr. Trinh Minh Anh, Mr. To Can, Mrs. Hoang Thi Lien, Mrs. Pham Quynh Mai and Mrs. Tran Phuong Lan as translators. The authors have kindly granted the permission to reprint and distribute the material in the framework of MUTRAP activities. Financial assistance for the publication was provided by the European Union.

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LI GII THIU *****

Vic chnh thc gia nhp Hip hi cc nc ng Nam (ASEAN) thng 7/1995, tr thnh thnh vin sng lp vin ca Hp tc -u (ASEM) nm 1996, v tr thnh thnh vin chnh thc ca Din n Hp tc Kinh t chu -Thi Bnh Dng (APEC) nm 1998 nh du mt bc tin quan trng trong s tham gia ca Vit Nam vo cc h thng kinh t- thng mi th gii. Qu trnh hi nhp ny s nh hng ngy cng su sc hn ti cc chnh sch iu hnh kinh t- thng mi Vit Nam. Tuy nhin, h thng kinh t- thng mi a phng l lnh vc kh mi m, khng ch vi a s cc doanh nghip m ngay c vi cc c quan qun l v hoch nh chnh sch ca Vit Nam. Do vy, D n H tr Chnh sch Thng mi a bin (MUTRAP) phi hp vi mt s chuyn gia ca B Thng mi xut bn cun T in Chnh sch Thng mi Quc t vi hy vng s p ng phn no nhu cu tm hiu v lnh vc ny, c bit l i vi nhng ngi ang lm nhng cng vic c lin quan n cc qu trnh m phn v trin khai cc hot ng hp tc thng mi a phng. CCH S DNG QUYN T IN Cc mc trong T in c sp xp theo vn ch ci ca cc t gc ting Anh, bao gm t n, cm t v cc t vit tt (in m). Mi mc t u c dch sang ting Vit (in nghing, ch m), tip l phn gii thch ni dung mc t. Trong phn gii thch, nhng t in nghing l nhng t c th tham chiu tip trong T in di dng mt mc t ring. thun tin trong vic tra cu, chng ti c in km theo mt danh mc ch dn tra cu theo chiu Vit Anh cui sch gip bn c c th nhanh chng tm c nguyn gc ting Anh ca cc mc t ting Vit. Cc t tham chiu sau gi "xem" v "xem thm", do c lin quan trc tip n t mc ang gii thch, nn c ghi thng bng ting Anh. Ngoi phn gii thch cc t mc, T in cng km theo cc ph chng tm lc Hip nh thnh lp WTO, cc Hip nh GATT v GATS, l cc vn kin nn tng trong m phn thng mi quc t hin nay. Xin trn trng gii thiu cng bn c. BAN QUN L D N MUTRAP

Cun sch ny c bin son vi s h tr ti chnh ca U ban Chu u. Quan im trong cun sch ny l ca cc chuyn gia t vn v do khng th hin quan im chnh thc ca U ban Chu u

This book has been prepared with financial assistance from the Commission of the European Communities. The views expressed herein are those of the consultants and therefore in no way reflect the official opinion of the

Commission

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A

Absolute advantage: Li th tuyt i

Quan im c Adam Smith a ra trong cun "S thnh vng ca cc quc gia", v c mt s nh hc gi khc pht trin, l cc quc gia tham gia vo hot ng thng mi quc t c th nhp c hng ho r hn so vi kh nng nc c th sn xut. Smith cho rng thng mi quc t cho php s chuyn mn ho cao hn so vi nn kinh t t cung t cp, do cho php cc ngun lc c s dng c hiu qu hn. Khi vit v l do ti sao cc gia nh li i mua hng ho ch khng t sn xut ra n, ng ni rng: "Nhng iu khn ngoan trong ng x ca mi gia nh kh c th khng tm thy trong ng x ca mt vng quc v i. Nu mt nc khc c th cung cp cho chng ta hng ho vi gi thp hn chng ta sn xut th tt hn ht l chng ta nn mua mt s hng ho ca nc mc d nn cng nghip ca chng ta c th sn xut ra, trong khi chng ta c th tp trung vo nhng ngnh chng ta c mt s li th". Xem thm autarkty, comparative advantage, gains-from-trade theory, Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, self-reliance v self-sufficiency.

Accession: Gia nhp

Vic tr thnh thnh vin ca WTO (T chc Thng mi th gii), hoc mt t chc hay hip nh quc t khc. Gia nhp WTO yu cu c cc cuc m phn gia nhng nc thnh vin hin ti vi nhng nc xin gia nhp m bo rng ch thng mi ca nc xin gia nhp phi ph hp vi cc nguyn tc ca WTO. Khi gia nhp, cc danh mc cam kt v gim thu quan v dch v m nc xin gia nhp a ra phi tng t nh cam kt ca cc thnh vin hin ti v h gia nhp WTO trc v tham gia lin tc cc vng m phn thng mi a phng. Ni cch khc, mi quc gia khi gia nhp phi cam kt tng t nh nhng quyn li m h c hng vi t cch l thnh vin. Gia nhp OECD cng i hi cc nc thnh vin mi phi chng minh rng ch kinh t ca mnh ni chung l ph hp vi ch kinh t ca cc nc thnh vin hin ti. Thnh vin ca UNCTAD hoc ca cc c quan khc ca Lin hp quc khng i hi nhng ngha v ny. Xem thm enlargement, schedules of commitments on services v schedules of concessions.

ACP States: Cc quc gia ACP

Khong 70 quc gia Chu Phi, vng Ca-ri-b v Thi bnh dng c lin kt vi Cng ng Chu u thng qua Cng c Lom em li cho nhng nc ny s u tin cho vic tip cn vi th trng ca Cng ng Chu u. Xem thm STABEX v SYSMIN.

Acquis communitaire: Tp hp vn kin ca Cng ng

Cc vn bn php lut c thng qua cc Hip c thnh lp Cng ng Chu u bao gm cc quy nh, tn ch, quyt nh, xut v cc quan im. im I ca Hip c Maastricht yu cu duy tr v xy dng Tp hp vn kin ca Cng ng nh l mt mc tiu ca Lin minh Chu u. Khi mt quc gia tham gia vo Lin minh Chu u, cc vn bn php lut hin c ca quc gia cn phi ph hp vi Tp hp vn kin ca Cng ng. iu ny i hi phi sa i hng trm o lut ngh vin cc nc thnh vin. Xem thm European community legislation.

Actionable subsidies: Tr cp c th dn n hnh ng

Mt phm tr tr cp c quy nh trong Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng ca WTO. Tr cp c coi l c th dn n hnh ng, v do l bt hp php, khi tr cp gy thit hi ti nn cng nghip trong nc ca cc quc gia thnh vin khc v vi phm cc cam kt ca GATT hoc gy tc ng nghim trng ti quyn li ca quc gia thnh vin khc. Nu nhng nh hng tiu cc xy ra, nc p dng bin php tr cp phi rt b bin php hoc khc phc cc nh hng tiu cc. Xem thm Countervailing duties, non-actionable subsidies, prohibited subsidies v subsidies.

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Administered trade: Thng mi c qun l

Xem managed trade.

Administrative guidance: Hng dn mang tnh hnh chnh

Vic lm trong thc t c thi k c chnh quyn Nht p dng. Nhng nc phn i nu ra rng vic lm ny c thc hin thng qua vic a ra d bo v sn xut hoc xut khu i vi nhng sn phm nhy cm hoc bng cc bin php khng chnh thc khc nhng cng c tc dng tng t. Nhng v d tiu biu cho khi nim ny l nhng bin php p dng cho mt hng -t v linh kin bn dn. Cc ngnh cng nghip c lin quan ti lnh vc ny ly nhng d bo lm mc trn ti a c tnh cho cc hot ng xut khu ca ngnh mnh. Hng dn mang tnh hnh chnh rt thch hp cho vic qun l nhng hn ch xut khu t nguyn.

Administrative international commodity agreements: Cc hip nh hng ho quc t mang tnh hnh chnh

y l tn gi i vi cc hip nh hng ho quc t khng p dng kho m, hn ngch xut khu hoc cc c ch khc nhm tc ng ti gi c hng ho bng cch iu tit lng hng ho tung ra th trng. y l mt hnh thc Hip nh lin quan ti cc vn nh tnh minh bch ca th trng, nng cao hiu qu sn xut, ch bin, phn phi hng ho v thu thp cc s liu thng k. Xem thm economic international commodity agreements.

Administrative protection: Bo h hnh chnh

Xem contingent protection v non-tariff measures.

Ad valorem equivalent: Thu tng ng tnh theo tr gi

Vic tnh mc thu ca mt sc thu c nh, bng cch chuyn mc thu sut tnh bng gi tr tin t c nh ca mi sn phm thnh mc thu sut tnh bng t l phn trm ca gi tr hng ho. Kt qu l mt thu sut tnh theo tr gi. V d: mc thu c nh 1 USD nh vo mt a compact tr gi 10 USD, theo cch tnh , c mc thu sut tng ng tnh theo tr gi l 10%. Nu a tr gi 20 USD th mc thu sut tng ng s l 5%.

Ad valorem tariff: Thu theo tr gi

Mt mc thu sut c tnh bng t l phn trm ca gi tr hng ho nhp khu. Hu ht cc thu sut hin nay u tnh bng bin php ny. Xem thm customs valuation v specific tariff.

African Economic Community (AEC): Cng ng Kinh t chu Phi

AEC l mt t chc nhm mc ch pht trin kinh t, x hi v vn ho ca chu Phi. T chc ny bt u i vo hot ng t ngy 12/5/1994. S lng thnh vin hin nay l trn 50 v c m rng cho tt c thnh vin ca T chc thng nht Chu Phi. V lu di, AEC nhm hnh thnh mt Th trng chung chu Phi nhng chng trnh lm vic ca T chc ny s tp trung vo hp tc thng mi v to thun li cho thng mi trong thi gian trung hn. Ban th k ca T chc ny t Addis Ababa.

AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade Area): Khu vc Thng mi t do ASEAN

Hip nh v Chng trnh u i thu quan c hiu lc chung nhm thc hin AFTA c hiu lc k t ngy 1/1/1993. Hip nh ny p dng vi thng mi hng ho gia cc nc ASEAN. Mc tiu ban u ca Hip nh ny nhm t c mc thu t 0-5% i vi thng mi hng ho gia cc nc thnh vin vo nm 2003, nhng hin nay mc thi gian ny c y ln thnh nm 2000 i vi nhiu sn phm. C ch chnh nhm t c vic gim thu quan l CEPT (Chng trnh u i thu quan c hiu lc chung). Hip nh ny ch yu bao gm Danh mc Gim thu c mc thu u i c p dng ngay v Danh mc Loi tr tm thi. Mc thu u i i vi cc sn phm ca Danh mc loi tr tm thi s c p dng mun nht l nm 2003. Vic gim thu c th c thc hin chm hn i vi nhng mt hng thuc Danh mc Nhy cm i vi nhng nng sn cha ch bin c thng qua

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vo thng 12/1995. Vic thc hin danh mc gim thu i vi nng sn c bt u t 1/1/1996. Bn cnh cn c chng trnh loi b cc bin php phi thu quan. Trong thi gian hin nay, Vit Nam tham gia AFTA v s hon thnh cc ngha v ca mnh vo nm 2006. c nhng quan im cho rng vic gia nhp ASEAN ca Cam-pu-chia, Lo, Myanmar vo nm 1997 s dn n hai tin trnh thc hin khc nhau i vi to thun li cho thng mi trong AFTA. Xem thm ASEAN framework agreement on services v ASEAN Investment Area.

AFTA-CER

Mt chng trnh hp tc v to thun li cho thng mi gia cc nc thnh vin AFTA (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thi-lan v Vit Nam) vi CER (Australia v New Zealand).

Agenda 21: Chng trnh ngh s 21

Mt chng trnh bao gm cc nguyn tc v hnh ng c lin quan gia thng mi v mi trng c thng qua ngy 14/6/1992 ti cuc hp UNCED (Hi ngh Lin hp quc v Mi trng v Pht trin) Rio de Janeiro. Chng trnh im A nhm thc y pht trin bn vng thng qua thng mi. Mc tiu ca Chng trnh ny l (a) thc y mt h thng thng mi m, khng phn bit i x v bnh ng cho php tt c cc nc ci thin c cu kinh t v nng cao iu kin sng ca nhn dn thng qua s pht trin kinh t bn vng; (b) nng cao kh nng xm th cho hng xut khu ca cc nc ang pht trin; (c) tng cng kh nng iu hnh nn kinh t hng ho v t c nhng chnh sch hng ho lnh mnh, ph hp v n nh tm c quc gia v quc t nhm mang li s ng gp ca hng ho i vi s pht trin bn vng, trong phi k n vn mi trng; v (d) thc y v h tr chnh sch quc gia v quc t nhm em li s tng trng kinh t v bo v mi trng c cc nc ng h. iu ny c thc hin thng qua hng lot cc hot ng c m t vi ni dung tng qut v, trong mt chng mc nht nh, xut pht t nhng hot ng truyn thng ca UNTAD trong lnh vc hng ho. Chng trnh im B nhm (a) lm cho thng mi v mi trng cng phc v cho s pht trin bn vng; (b) phn nh r vai tr ca GATT, UNCTAD v cc t chc quc t khc trong vic gii quyt cc vn v thng mi v lin quan n mi trng bao gm cc th tc ho gii, gii quyt tranh chp v khuyn khch sn xut v cnh tranh quc t, khuyn khch vai tr c tnh xy dng i vi nn cng nghip gii quyt cc vn mi trng v pht trin. Mc tiu ny c h tr bng cc hot ng thc tin. Chng trnh ngh s 21 cp n trong quy ch lm vic ca U ban WTO v Thng mi v Mi trng, v c dng tham chiu trong qu trnh tho lun ca U ban ny. Xem thm Commodity policy v Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.

Aggregate measurement of support: Lng h tr tng cng

Mt thut ng c s dng trong cc cuc m phn v nng nghip. y l mc h tr hng nm tnh bng tin ca tt c cc bin php h tr trong nc trong ngun qu Chnh ph c dng tr cp cho sn xut nng nghip. Theo kt qu m phn ca Vng Uruguay, mc h tr hng nm phi c ct gim. Cc bin php h tr trong nc c nh hng ti thiu ti thng mi s khng b ct gim. Xem thm Agreement on Agriculture, blue box, equivalent measure of support, green box v subsidies.

Aggressive multilateralism: Ch ngha a phng tch cc

Mt thut ng c Bayard v Elliott (1994) dng ch mt trong nhng cch m ca th trng kh thi i vi Hoa K sau khi thng qua Bn ghi nh ca WTO v gii quyt tranh chp. Bn ghi nh lm gim kh nng ca Hoa K trong vic tin hnh hnh ng theo Khon 301 nhng mt khc n li a ra kh nng t ng v tin liu m Hoa K v nhng nc khc ng h nhiu nm, iu m h thy cn thit h thng gii quyt tranh chp ca GATT vn hnh tt hn. Ch ngha a phng tch cc c ngha l c ch gii quyt tranh

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chp s c s dng mt cch dt khot, v c Khon 301 h tr trong chng mc iu l hp php v cn thit.

Aggressive reciprocity: Tng h tch cc

Mt dng tng h, do William R. Cline (1983) a ra, xut pht t hot ng n phng ca mt nc nhm buc mt i tc thng mi p dng cc tp qun theo h. Cc bin php c sc thuyt phc c s dng bao gm bin php tr a nhm phn ng li hnh ng khng lnh mnh, vic p dng lut l thng mi trong nc, v.v... Tng h tch cc c kh nng gii quyt mt s vn thng mi, nhng thng b chi phi bi nhng ch khng lnh mnh mang mu sc chnh tr. Bin php ny c m t nh l "L thuyt thanh by trong chnh sch thng mi". Xem thm Bilateralism, passive reciprocity, Section 301, Special 301, unfair trading practices v unilateralism.

Aggressive unilateralism: Ch ngha n phng tch cc

Xem Unilateralism.

Agreement for the Protection of Appellation of Origin and their International Registration: Hip nh v bo v quyn xut x v ng k quc t

Xem Lisbon Agreement.

Agreement on Agriculture: Hip nh v Nng nghip

Mt trong nhng kt qu ca Vng Uruguay. Hip nh ny a ra mt khun kh a phng c hiu qu u tin cho ci cch v t do ho di hn thng mi trong lnh vc nng nghip. Hip nh thit lp cc lut l v cam kt mi trong vic m ca th trng, h tr trong nc v cnh tranh xut khu (vic x l tr cp). Hip nh khuyn khch vic p dng cc chnh sch h tr trong nc m t bp mo thng mi hn, v cho php cc hnh ng nhm gim gnh nng ca qu trnh iu chnh trong nc. Hip nh i hi cn c mt s bin php l (a) ct gim 36% chi tiu cho tr cp xut khu u trong 6 nm i vi cc nc pht trin, 24% i vi cc nc ang pht trin trong 10 nm; (b) gim 21% lng hng xut khu c tr cp trong 6 nm i vi cc nc pht trin, 14% trong 10 nm i vi cc nc ang pht trin; cc khon tr cp trong nc c tnh bng lng h tr tng cng phi gim 20% trong 6 nm, so vi thi k c s tnh t 1986-1988; v (d) cc bin php phi thu quan hin c phi chuyn thnh thu quan v c gii hn trn, sau gim bnh qun 36% u trong 6 nm, cng ly thi k c s l 1986-1988. i vi cc nc ang pht trin th mc gim s l 24% trong 10 nm. Hip nh ny quy nh c cc cam kt m ca ti thiu i vi cc th trng b ng ca trc , v cc bin php t v c bit phi tun theo cc iu kin c quy nh cht ch gii quyt vic tng nhp khu sau khi thu ho. Ngoi ra, cc cuc m phn lin quan n t do ho thng mi trong nng nghip phi c ni li vo ngy 1/1/2000. Cc nc thnh vin c mt s linh hot trong vic thc hin cc cam kt nu nh h p ng c cc mc tiu nh tho thun. Xem thm agriculture and the GATT, blue box, green box, continuation clause v peace clause.

Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Services: Hip nh v Dch v vin thng c bn

Hip nh u tin ca WTO nh kt qu ca Vng Uruguay v thng mi trong lnh vc dch v, c k vo ngy 15/2/1997. Hip nh ny c nhng cam kt v m ca th trng ca 69 nc thnh vin, bao gm c thng mi qua bin gii v vic cung cp dch v thng qua s hin din thng mi. Hip nh ny c hiu lc k t ngy 1/1/1998. Xem thm cross-border trade in services v International Telecommunication Union.

Agreement on Government Procurement: Hip nh v Mua sm ca chnh ph

y l mt trong nhng hip nh nhiu bn ca WTO. Vic chnh ph mua sm hng ho v dch v dng khng nm trong din iu chnh ca GATS hoc GATT. Mt s thnh vin ca GATT xem vn ny l thiu st ln v h tho thun Hip nh v Mua sm ca chnh

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ph ti Vng Tokyo. Hip nh WTO l s k tha ca vn bn Vng Tokyo. Hip nh ny p dng vi cc hp ng mua sm hng ho, dch v v xy dng ca chnh ph trung ng, chnh quyn bang hoc tnh v nhng ngnh phc v cng cng trn mt quy m nht nh. Hin nay Hip nh ny c 10 thnh vin tham gia, k c Cng ng Chu u c tnh nh l mt, Nht, Canada v Hoa K. Mt s nc khc ang xem xt gia nhp. Hip nh ny nhm bo m rng, tu theo cc bin php hp php bin gii (v d cc tiu chun sc kho v an ton, bo v s hu tr tu, v. v...), cc nh cung cp nc ngoi c i x khng km thun li hn cc nh cung cp trong nc trong nhng hp ng mua hng ca chnh ph. Hip nh ny cng quy nh cc bn dnh cho nhau i ng ti hu quc trong vic mua sm ca chnh ph, nhng c s tng h trc tip trong phm vi m cc nc thnh vin cho php cc cng ty ca cc nc thnh vin khc cnh tranh trong vic mua sm ca chnh ph nc . iu ny c c bit p dng mua hng cc cp di cp lin bang hay trung ng. Hip nh cng nhm t c nhng th tc v tp qun ca chnh ph r rng trong vic mua hng. Australia v New Zealand khng phi l thnh vin ca Hip nh ny. Xem thm second-level obligations.

Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994: Hip nh thc hin iu VI ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi

y l Hip nh chng ph gi ca WTO. Xem anti-dumping measures v dumping.

Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994: Hip nh thc hin iu VII ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi

y l Hip nh v nh gi hi quan. Hip nh ny quy nh cc nguyn tc v th tc m cc nc thnh vin WTO phi tun th khi xc nh tr gi ca hng ho nhp khu nhm mc ch thu ng thu hi quan. C s u tin tnh tr gi hi quan l tr gi giao dch. Ni rng ra, y l gi thc tr cho hng ho xut khu theo cc iu kin cnh tranh thng thng.

Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures: Hip nh v Th tc cp php nhp khu

Hip nh ny quy nh cc th tc m cc nc thnh vin WTO phi tun th trong vic qun l ch cp php nhp khu. Mt trong nhng mc tiu ca n l bo m rng nhng ch nh vy c qun l theo cch cng bng v bnh ng v theo cc iu kin r rng.

Agreement on Preshipment Inspection: Hip nh v Kim tra trc khi giao hng

y l hip nh ca WTO quy nh cc iu kin v cc th tc m theo cc nc thnh vin thc hin kim tra trc khi giao hng bo m rng chi ph ca hng ho c gi ph hp vi chi ph ghi trong ho n. Vic kim tra nh vy ch yu c cc nc ang pht trin s dng ngn nga vic r r vn, gian ln thng mi, trn thu hi quan v cc hnh ng tng t khc. Hip nh i hi cc nc thnh vin p dng cc nguyn tc v ngha v ca GATT trong cc hot ng ny. iu ny bao gm s khng phn bit i x, tnh cng khai, bo v cc thng tin kinh doanh mt, trnh cc trng hp tr hon khng hp l, vic s dng cc hng dn c th cho vic thm nh gi v trnh cc xung t v quyn li gia cc c quan kim tra trc khi giao hng. Cc nc thnh vin xut khu phi p dng lut v cc quy nh ca nc h lin quan n cc hot ng giao hng mt cch khng phn bit i x. Cc nc phi cng b ngay cc lut l v quy nh ang p dng v khi c yu cu, cc nc phi dnh h tr k thut cho cc nc thnh vin p dng bin php ny. Trong trng hp c tranh chp, cc bn c s dng cc th tc xem xt c lp theo nh quy nh ca Hip nh. Cc th tc ny do mt c quan c lp qun l to ra mt t chc lm i din cho c quan kim tra trc khi xp hng v mt t chc i din cho ngi xut khu. Quyt nh ca nhm ngi xem xt 3 bn c coi l rng buc vi tt c cc bn tranh chp.

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Agreement on Rules of Origin: Hip nh v Quy ch xut x

Mt trong nhng hip nh ca WTO. Hip nh ny ra mt chng trnh lm vic di hn nhm thng nht cc quy ch xut x. Cng vic ny phi c U ban v quy tc xut x hon thnh vo ngy 1/1/1998 hoc ngay sau . Cng vic ca U ban c quy nh theo cc nguyn tc trong Hip nh ny. V d, quy ch xut x c nh ngha l lut, quy nh v quyt nh hnh chnh do cc nc thnh vin p dng xc nh nc xut x ca hng ho c chp nhn theo cc iu kin v ti hu quc, tc l n khng p dng i vi cc sn phm c nhp theo chng trnh u i thu quan. Nc xut x hng ho l nc hoc l hng ho hon ton c sn xut ra, hoc nu c hn mt nc c lin quan th l nc m hng ha c nhng chuyn i c bn. Hip nh quy nh rng quy ch xut x cn c qun l theo cch nht qun, thng nht, cng bng v hp l. Cc quy tc khng c to ra nhng tc ng hn ch, lm bin dng hoc ph v i vi thng mi quc t. Cui cng, quy ch xut x phi quy nh nhng g to nn ch khng phi nhng g khng to nn xut x. Hip nh c mt ph lc di dng mt tuyn b v vic qun l quy ch xut x c chp nhn theo cc iu kin u i. Xem thm change in tariff heading v preferential rules of origin.

Agreement on Safeguards: Hip nh v T v

y l hip nh ca WTO quy nh khi no v bng cch no cc nc thnh vin c th vn dng iu XIX ca GATT. iu ny quy nh kh nng p dng hnh ng khn cp bo v nn cng nghip trong nc khi vic tng nhp khu khng lng trc ang gy ra hoc c th gy ra thit hi nghim trng ti nn cng nghip. "Thit hi nghim trng" c nh ngha l vic gy phng hi ng k n nn cng nghip trong nc, v "e do thit hi nghim trng" c ngha l nhng thit hi nh vy r rng l sp xy ra. Hip nh ny lu rng vic xc nh mi e do ca cc thit hi nghim trng phi c da trn thc t, ch khng phi trn l l, s phng on, hoc nhng kh nng xa xi. Hip nh ny ra nhng tiu chun i vi vic iu tra p dng t v bao gm thng bo i cht cng khai v nhng bin php thch hp khc cc bn c lin quan c th a ra cc bng chng. Cc tiu chun cng bao gm quy nh bin php t v c v li ch chung hay khng. Nu nh vic chm tr trong s dng hnh ng t v c th gy ra tn tht kh khc phc th c th p dng cc bin php t v tm thi trong thi gian khng qu 200 ngy. Hnh ng t v phi c thc hin mt cch khng phn bit i x. N c p dng i vi sn phm ch khng phi chng li ngun sn phm. Kh nng la chn do khng cn na. Ni chung, thi hn ca bin php t v khng c vt qu 4 nm, mc d vy c th ko di ti a trong 8 nm trong mt s trng hp. Bt k bin php no p dng trn mt nm phi c kt hp vi iu chnh c cu theo hng t do ho dn iu kin m ca th trng. Cc nc thnh vin s dng hnh ng t v c th phi c bi thng. Hip nh ny cm cc ci gi l bin php min xm v tt c cc bin php t v c hiu lc k t 1/1/1995 phi c loi b trong 5 nm. Xem thm de minimis safeguards rule.

Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: Hip nh v p dng cc bin php v sinh dch t

Mt hip nh ca WTO lin quan n vic s dng cc quy nh v an ton lng thc, sc kho ng vt v cy trng cc bin php ny khng c s dng nh l hng ro tr hnh i vi thng mi quc t. Hip nh ny dnh cho chnh ph quyn p dng cc bin php v sinh dch t, nhng chng khng c dng phn bit i x mt cch tu tin v phi l gia cc nc thnh vin WTO ang p dng cc bin php ging hoc tng t nhau. Hip nh ny khuyn khch cc nc thnh vin p dng cc bin php trong nc theo cc tiu chun, cc hng dn v khuyn ngh ca quc t. Cc nc thnh vin c th p dng hoc duy tr tiu chun mc cao nu c nhng chng minh khoa hc hoc nu nh gi ri ro ch ra rng iu l thch hp. Mt nc nhp khu phi xem xt cc tiu chun c cc nc xut khu p dng l tng ng vi bn thn tiu chun ca nc nu nh nc xut khu c th chng minh c ng l nh vy. Hip nh ny ra cc th tc chi tit iu chnh

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tnh cng khai ca cc quy nh, c ch thng bo, v vic thnh lp cc im tip xc quc gia.

Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures: Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng

Mt hip nh ca WTO quy nh 3 loi tr cp v cc th tc x l cc loi tr cp . Ba loi l cc tr cp b cm (tr cp c iu kin da trn kt qu xut khu hoc yu cu s dng hng ni a ch khng phi hng nhp khu), tr cp c th dn n hnh ng (l tr cp ch c duy tr nu khng gy thit hi nn cng nghip ca cc nc thnh vin khc, v hiu ho hoc gy phng hi cc ch li hoc gy ra phng hi nghim trng ti li ch ca cc nc thnh vin khc) v tr cp khng dn n hnh ng (tr cp cc nc thnh vin c php duy tr). Hip nh ny quy nh chi tit thi gian biu i vi trng hp gii quyt tranh chp ny sinh t vic p dng Hip nh. Hip nh ny cng quy nh cc iu kin c th p dng thu i khng. Hip nh ny khng p dng i vi tr cp nng nghip. Xem thm Agreement on Agriculture, blue box, green box, Permanent Group of Experts v provisional countervailing duties.

Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade: Hip nh v Cc hng ro k thut i vi thng mi

Mt hip nh ca WTO nhm m bo cc quy nh v tiu chun k thut k c cc yu cu v ng gi, nhn mc v cc th tc nh gi s ph hp vi cc quy nh v tiu chun k thut, khng to ra nhng tr ngi khng cn thit i vi thng mi quc t. Hip nh ny k tha B lut Tiu chun ca Vng Tokyo. Hip nh ny khuyn khch cc nc thnh vin s dng cc tiu chun quc t thch hp, nhng khng yu cu cc nc thnh vin phi thay i mc bo h v l do tiu chun ho. Hip nh ny p dng khng ch vi nhng tiu chun i vi mt sn phm m cn lin quan n cc phng php ch bin v sn xut. Cc th tc thng bo quy nh s c p dng. Bn ph lc ca Hip nh ny l B lut v tp qun tt phc v cho vic chun b, thng qua v p dng cc tiu chun. C quan tiu chun ho ca chnh quyn trung ng phi tun th b lut ny v n c m i vi cc c quan chnh quyn a phng v phi chnh ph. Xem thm conformity assessment, International Electrotechnical Commission v International Organisation for Standardisation.

Agreement on Textiles and Clothing: Hip nh v Hng dt v may mc

Mt hip nh ca WTO k tha Hip nh a si (MFA). Hip nh ny khc vi MFA ch mc tiu ca n l a thng mi quc t trong lnh vc hng dt v may mc tr li khun kh cc nguyn tc t do ho v khng phn bit i x thng thng ca WTO vo ngy 1/1/2005. n 1/1/1995, cc nc thnh vin phi p dng cc bin php trn cho 16% khi lng thng mi hng dt nm 1990 ca mnh. n 1/1/1998, 17% khc s phi c a vo, thm 18% na vo ngy 1/1/2002 v s cn li s c a vo ngy 1/1/2005. iu ny c ngha l c mt khi lng ng k c d dn vo thi k sau, nhng mt s iu kin cng bng s c p dng. V d mi giai on, sn phm phi c chn t 4 nhm sau: lt v t si, vi, sn phm dt lm sn v qun o. Tin trnh thc hin c c quan iu hnh hng dt gim st, l mt c quan c thnh lp theo Hip nh ny v c mt s chc nng gii quyt tranh chp trong phm vi Hip nh. C ch gii quyt tranh chp ca WTO cng c p dng i vi cc nc thnh vin.

Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft: Hip nh v bun bn my bay dn dng

y l mt trong nhng hip nh nhiu bn ca WTO, lc u c k nh mt b phn ca Vng Tokyo. Cc bn k kt ca Hip nh cam kt gim thu hi quan v cc khon thu khc i vi (a) my bay dn dng; (b) ng c, cc b phn v chi tit my bay dn dng; (c) cc b phn, chi tit, cc chi tit lp rp ph khc ca my bay dn dng; (d) thit b m phng bay mt t. Hip nh ny quy nh ngi mua c t do la chn ngi cung cp trn c s cc yu t thng mi, cng ngh v khng c hn ch nh lng. Cc quy nh ca WTO v tr cp s c p dng.

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Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights: Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi

Mt trong nhng hip nh ca WTO c k trong Vng Uruguay. Hip nh ny c m phn nhm gii quyt cng thng gia tng trong thng mi quc t ny sinh t nhng tiu chun khc nhau bo h v thc hin quyn s hu tr tu v vic thiu nhng nguyn tc a phng v thng mi hng gi quc t. Hip nh ny p dng i vi bn quyn v cc quyn lin quan, thng hiu, ch du a l, kiu dng cng nghip, bng pht minh, s mch tch hp v vic bo v b mt thng mi. Tiu chun bo h c p dng l cc tiu chun c trong Cng c Paris (sa i 1967), Cng c Bern (sa i 1971), Cng c Rome v Hip c v s hu tr tu lin quan n mch tch hp nhng khng cn thit phi tham gia vo nhng Cng c . Cc nc thnh vin c t do xc nh cc phng php ph hp thc hin cc quy nh ca Hip nh ny trong phm vi h thng php lut v thc tin ca mnh. Cc nc pht trin c yu cu phi a cc quy nh php l v thc tin ca mnh ph hp vi Hip nh vo cui nm 1995. Cc nc ang pht trin v cc nc ang trong qu trnh chuyn i t k hoch ho tp trung sang nn kinh t th trng cho n tn cui nm 1999 mi phi thc hin nhng iu cam kt. Xem thm industrial property v intellectual property.

Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures: Hip nh v Cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi

Mt trong nhng Hip nh ca WTO c k ti Vng Uruguay, c hiu lc t ngy 1/1/1995. Hip nh ny nhm loi b cc iu kin gn vi vic cho php u t c nh hng bin dng hoc hn ch thng mi hng ho. Ph lc ca Hip nh c danh sch minh ho cc bin php v u t c xem l khng ph hp vi iu 3 (i ng quc gia) v iu 9 (Loi b hon ton cc hn ch nh lng) ca GATT. l (a) i hi doanh nghip phi s dng mt s lng nht nh sn phm c xut x ni a, (b) cho php nhp khu lin quan n vic thc hin xut khu, (c) cc yu cu lin quan n hn ch nh lng hng nhp khu. Cc nc thnh vin pht trin phi loi b cc bin php khng ph hp vo ngy 1/1/1997, cc nc ang pht trin vo ngy 1/1/2000 v cc nc km pht trin nht l vo ngy 1/1/2002. Hip nh cng a ra ti iu 9 mt kh nng l vo giai on sau c th c c nhng quy nh v u t v chnh sch cnh tranh. Xem thm local content requirements.

Agreement regarding International Trade in Textiles: Hip nh v thng mi quc t hng dt

Xem Multi-Fibre Arrangement.

Agreement respecting normal competitive conditions in the commercial shipbuilding and repair industry: Hip nh lin quan n cc iu kin cnh tranh thng thng trong ngnh cng nghip ng tu v sa cha tu bin thng mi

Xem OECD shipbuilding agreement.

Agriculture and the GATT: Nng nghip v GATT

Cc quy nh ca GATT khng phn bit gia hng nng sn v nhng hng khc ngoi tr nhng trng hp nh. iu XI yu cu loi b cc hn ch nh lng ni chung, nhng iu XI:2 cho php mt s hn ch nhp khu v xut khu i vi nhng sn phm nng nghip theo nhng iu kin quy nh ngt ngho. iu XVI (tr cp) yu cu cc bn trnh s dng tr cp i vi vic xut khu cc sn phm s cp, v iu XX (Ngoi l chung) cho php cc nc thnh vin ngng mt s ngha v tun theo cc bin php m h chp nhn trong cc Hip nh hng ho quc t. Nhng Hip nh ny thc t khng chu s iu chnh bi cc nguyn tc ca GATT. Trong vi nm u ca GATT, tnh hnh ny khng gy ra kh khn thc s no. Ty u ang c gng khc phc nhng nh hng ca chin tranh v cha c mt s du hiu d tha thng xuyn, iu tr thnh mt c trng ca thng mi trong nng nghip thp k sau . Ni ring, cc nc ny dng nh l nhng th trng tiu th d tha ca Hoa K, ngoi tr sn phm sa. Vo thi gian ca Phin hp r sot GATT 1955, c

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mt suy ngh gia cc nc thnh vin l n thi im a nhng cam kt v hng ho vo di s gim st ca GATT. Tuy nhin, Hoa K thc s c vn . Dng nh khng th kim ch kh nng sn xut d tha trong nc ca Hoa k, v cc th trng nhp khu ca h tr nn rt quyn r i vi cc nh cung cp nc ngoi. Nhng hn ch nhp khu theo iu XI:2 c v khng p ng c vic gii quyt vn ny. Vo nm 1951, Hoa K dnh s min tr i vi hn ch nhp khu hng sa. iu ny c thay th bng mt yu cu vo nm 1954, v c chp thun vo nm 1955, dnh s min tr khng thi hn cho n khi nc ny c th a cc quy nh ca o lut v iu chnh trong Nng nghip ph hp vi ngha v ca GATT. y l min tr Khon 22. T , Hoa K c php p t hn ch nhp khu i vi cc sn phm nng nghip khi thy cn thit. Hnh ng ny to ra nn tng cho vic x l nhng vn nng nghip trong tng lai tng lai theo cc nguyn tc ca GATT. Cc c hi gii quyt vn ny theo nhng nguyn tc thng thng gp phi cn tr ln. V d, khi Thu-s tm thi gia nhp GATT vo nm 1958, nc ny ginh c ngoi l i vi ton b lnh vc nng nghip. Tuy nhin, nhng nc thnh vin khc ca GATT li tip tc tm kim mt ch thng mi quc t i vi hng ho. Trong khi ch i, mt xut ny sinh vo u nm 1955 v vic hnh thnh Hip nh c bit v cc tho thun hng ho (SACA). Hip nh ny to ra c ch gii quyt s mt cn bng gia sn xut v tiu dng i vi nhng loi hng ho s cp, k c kh nng p dng cho nhng tha thun hng ho. Tho thun ny tn ti song song vi GATT hay l mt b phn ca GATT th cha bao gi c lm r. Trong bt k trng hp no, d xut c gi tr nh th no, th iu cng khng c ngha l g v Hip nh khng c hiu lc. c mt s nc cho rng h c th sng tt hn vi cc iu kin hin thi ca GATT. Mt s nc khc cho rng chng c ngha g tip tc khi Hoa K t r rng h khng quan tm vic tr thnh thnh vin ca SACA. Cc n lc trong 3 thp k tip theo nhm p t cc nguyn tc ca GATT i vi thng mi nng nghip khng t c tm nh xut . Mt sng kin ny sinh my thng sau nhm gii quyt vn gii quyt d tha, c th l theo cc o lut ca Hoa K chng hn nh PL 480, b m nht dn sau vi nm tho lun. Mt n lc sau nhm gii quyt nhng vn lin quan n thng mi trong lnh vc nng nghip c a vo trong Bo co Haberler nm 1957. Bo co ny ch yu nhm phn tch ti sao thng mi ca cc nc ang pht trin khng pht trin nhanh chng nh cc nc cng nghip ho, nhng dao ng gi ngn hn qu ln ca cc sn phm s cp v vic p dng rng ri bo h hng nng nghip. Bo co ca Ban hi thm vi tiu Nhng xu hng trong Thng mi quc t, c cng b vo thng 10/1958. Bn cnh cc vn khc, bo co ny lp lun phi gim mc ch ngha bo h nng nghip Bc M v Ty u, phng hng chung ca bo co ny l thin v t do ho thng mi. Mc d bn bo co c hu ht cc thnh vin ng h nhng nh hng ca n li tr nn rt nh b. Mt U ban c thnh lp xem xt chi tit nhng xut ca bn bo co, v iu ny lm ngi ta tin rng mt gii php ang n gn. Mc d c phn tch v tho lun, nhng iu ng ni nht v tc ng di hn ca bn bo co Haberler ch l n c xem nh l bc u tin tin ti vic ra i Vng Dillion vo nm 1960. Lc vic phc hi hon ton ca Ty u sau chin tranh v vic thnh lp Cng ng Kinh t Chu u dn n tnh hnh mi trong thng mi hng nng sn ton cu. Vic p dng Chnh sch Nng nghip chung vi cc bin thu v nhng bin php h tr trong nc to ra mt i th cnh tranh ng gm lm bin dng thng mi m n tn by gi vn c coi l do cc hnh ng ca Hoa K gy ra. Sau , Vng Kennedy bt u nm 1963 dng nh a ra nhng c hi mi gii quyt vn nng nghip. Mt trong nhng mc tiu ca Vng ny l thng qua cc bin php xm th cho nng sn v cc sn phm s cp. Vng m phn bt u tht ti t bng vic n ra Chin tranh tht g, mt cuc tranh chp gia Hoa K v Cng ng Kinh t Chu u vi vic ng ca bt ng th trng c v cc nc Chu u khc i vi gia cm thng qua vic p dng cc bin thu. Kt qu ca Vng Kenedy v hng nng sn rt ngho nn. Thnh cng chnh ca n l to ra ng lc cho vic k kt Tho thun mi v ng cc quc t sau . Nhim v caVng Tokyo (1973-1979) l m phn v nng nghip, c tnh n nhng c th v nhng vng mc trong lnh vc ny. Nhng cuc m phn nh vy cui cng cng kt thc trong tht bi. Vic k Hip nh v tht b v Hip nh quc t v cc sn phm sa a ra mt gii php yu t

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i vi lnh vc thng mi ny, nhng vn khng gii quyt c nhng vn v sn xut qu mc trong nc, tr cp xut khu, cc hn ch nhp khu v cc bin php khc l c trng trong lnh vc thng mi nng nghip. Vng Tokyo kt thc vi tho thun l cc nc tip tc m phn xy dng mt Khun kh Nng nghip a phng nhm trnh i u chnh tr v kinh t lin min trong lnh vc ny. Cc cuc m phn c ni li nhng khng c hiu qu g. Nh Hudec, Kennedy, Sgarbossa (1993) ghi nhn, trong khong t nm 1947 n trong khong t nm 1947 n nhng nm u 1980 c 100 cuc tranh chp trong GATT lin quan nng nghip, chim khong gn 43% cc tranh chp c bo co. Hoa K v Cng ng Kinh t Chu u c lin quan vi t cch nguyn n hoc b n ca 87 v trong s . Mt bc khi u mi nhm tm c gii php i vi cc vn v thng mi nng nghip l rt cn thit. Cuc hp cp B trng GATT nm 1982 tho thun v chng trnh lm vic nhm xem xt tt c cc vn nh hng ti thng mi, m ca th trng, cnh tranh v vn cung cp trong nng nghip. Mt nhm lm vic a ra xut vo nm 1984 v m ca th trng ln hn, cnh tranh xut khu mnh hn, nhng quy tc r rng hn v hn ch nh lng v tr cp, v nhng i ng c bit c hiu qu hn i vi cc nc ang pht trin. Bn bo co c cc xut c thng qua trong cng nm . Sau , nhng xut li v pha sau v cc cuc m phn chun b cho Vng Uruguay bt u. Thc ra, nhng xut to nn d tho cc mc tiu chnh ca m phn n c bt u vo nm 1986. Cc B trng tho thun ti Punta del Este rng cc cuc m phn cn t c s t do ho hn na trong thng mi nng nghip v t tt c cc bin php nh hng ti tip cn th trng nhp khu v cnh tranh xut khu vo khun kh cc nguyn tc v lut l ca GATT cht ch hn v c kh nng p dng hiu qu hn. Cn phi ch hn ti vic gim cc hng ro cn tr nhp khu, mt mi trng cnh tranh tt hn v nhng nh hng ca cc bin php v sinh dch t. Mt nhn t mi nhp cuc. Trong cc Vng Kenedy v Tokyo, cc cuc m phn v nng nghip ch yu c tin hnh gia Cng ng Kinh t Chu u v Hoa K. Cc i tc thng mi khc v nng nghip ch xut hin bn l ca nhng cuc m phn . Vic hnh thnh Nhm Cairns ngay trc khi tin hnh Vng Uruguay, mt nhm gm 14 nc kinh doanh lnh mnh trong lnh vc nng nghip, m bo c ting ni th 3 c nh hng v c mc . Nng nghip l mt trong nhng ch m phn kh khn nht ca Vng m phn ny. Cc vn u c hiu k nhng khng t c tin b no cho ti khi Cng ng Chu u tha nhn rng nhng thay i trong Chnh sch Nng nghip Chung ch cn thit v l do ti chnh trong nc, v vic gim h tr gi l c th m khng gy chia r nhng mi lin h x hi ca Cng ng . Ngay c lc , U ban Chu u cng gp kh khn trong vic nhn c u quyn m phn t cc nc thnh vin. S yu km trong vic tham gia ca Cng ng ny vo cc cuc m phn v nng nghip l nguyn nhn trc tip dn n tht bi ca Hi ngh B trng Brussel vo thng 12/1990. Vn cng gp kh khn v Hoa K c bm cht mc tiu nhm t ti tr cp bng khng, mt vic m ngay c Hoa k cng khng mong i c th lm c ngay c vi nhng tp qun ca h. Hip c Blair House thng 11/1992 nh du mt mc quan trng ca Vng m phn. Cc cuc m phn vn din ra kh khn v mt s thay i c li cho Cng ng Chu u c a vo Hip c ny vo thng 12/1993. iu ny cho php kt thc Vng m phn vi ngy sau . Thng mi i vi tt c nng sn hin nay thuc din iu chnh ca cc quy tc ca WTO nhng vn cn thm nhiu cuc m phn t c mt ch thng mi tng t nh cc sn phm cng nghip. c c m t ngn gn v kt qu ca Vng Uruguay v nng nghip, xem Agreement on Agriculture. Xem thm Baumgartner proposals v Mansholt proposals.

ALADI: Hip hi lin kt M La-tinh

Hip hi lin kt M La-tinh (LAIA), c thnh lp nm 1980 gm cc nc Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay v Venezuela theo sau s sp ca Hip hi Thng mi t do M La-tinh (LAFTA). Mc tiu ALADI c quy nh trong Hip c Montevideo l theo ui vic thnh lp dn dn v lin tc mt th trng chung M La-tinh. Mercosur c xem nh l mt bc tin ti mc tiu ny.

Alliance for Progress: Lin minh v s tin b

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Ban u l K hoch pht trin 10 nm ca M La-tinh bao gm nhng mc tiu kinh t v x hi c Tng thng Hoa K Kenedy a ra nm 1961. Trong nhng mc tiu ny c "mt gii php nhanh chng v bn vng i vi nhng vn gc r do s dao ng gi qu ln ca cc mt hng xut khu chnh ca nhng nc M La-tinh" v y nhanh lin kt kinh t M La-tinh. Mt s tin b t c theo thi gian, nhng khi Lin minh v s tin b chnh thc kt thc vo nm 1980, nhng thnh qu t c cn xa vi mc tiu nh. Xem thm Caribbean Basin Innitiative, Enterprise for the Americas Initiative v FTAA.

Alternative dispute resolution: Gii php thay th i vi tranh chp

Mt phng php gii quyt tranh chp thng qua trng ti, tham vn, trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, v.v... bn cnh cc th tc to n chnh thc. Cc bn tranh chp thng nh ra mt hoc vi ngi khng lin quan c kh nng i n kt lun da trn s cng bng v bnh ng. Gii php thay th i vi tranh chp ch c tc dng khi cc bn thc s mong mun tm ra gii php v chp nhn kt qu ca m phn, v nhng phn quyt nh vy trong phn ln cc trng hp khng c kh nng cng ch thng qua to n. Xem thm dispute settlement.

Alternative specific tariff: Thu c nh thay th

Mt mc thu sut tnh theo tr gi bng t l phn trm ca tr gi sn phm, hoc theo thu sut c nh, tc l c tnh mc tin t c nh trn mi sn phm. Cc c quan hi quan thng p dng mc thu cao hn trong hai mc nu trn. Xem thm ad valorem tariff v specific tariff.

Admendments to WTO agreements: Sa i i vi cc Hip nh WTO

Cc iu khon sau ca WTO c th c sa i vi s nht tr ca tt c cc thnh vin: iu IX (ra quyt nh) ca Hip nh Marrakesh thnh lp T chc Thng mi Th gii, iu I (i ng ti hu quc chung) v iu II (Danh mc u i) ca GATT 1994, iu II:1 (i ng ti hu quc) ca GATS, v iu IV (i ng ti hu quc) ca Hip nh v Quyn s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi. Sa i i vi cc quy nh khc ca cc hip nh a phng WTO c th c thng qua theo nguyn tc a s 2/3. Mi nc thnh vin sau phi hon thnh cc th tc chp nhn sa i . Hip nh Marrakesh c cc iu khon cho php Hi ngh B trng WTO quyt nh theo nguyn tc a s 3/4 m bt k mt thnh vin no khng chp nhn sa i trong mt khong thi gian no c th t do rt khi WTO hoc vn l thnh vin. Quy nh ny r rng l ch c s dng trong mt s trng hp ngoi l. Tt c thnh vin ca WTO u c mt phiu biu quyt. Cng ng Chu u c php c s lng phiu bng vi s lng nhng nc thnh vin ca mnh. Nhng sa i i vi hip nh nhiu bn ca WTO c thng qua vi iu kin phi tun theo cc quy nh ca cc hip nh ny. Xem thm decision-making in the WTO.

American Selling Price (ASP): Gi bn ca M

Cho n nm 1979, l phng php tnh tr gi hng ho ti bin gii tnh thu hi quan c Hoa K quy nh trong o lut Thu quan 1922 v thc hin theo vi s kt hp ca o lut Thu quan 1930. Tnh thu ch yu da trn gi bn bun thng thng, gm c vic chun b giao hng, m ti hng ho c sn xut ti Hoa K c bn trn th trng trong nc. nh hng ca h thng ny c th l mt mc thu cao hn t 2-3 ln so vi phng php tnh tr gi c a ra trong iu VII ca GATT (nh gi hi quan). Vic p dng h thng c vn c php v iu khon bo lu cho php s tip tc tn ti cc o lut c t trc khi c GATT, thm ch n vi phm ngay chnh iu khon ca GATT. Tuy nhin, ch c di 1% hng nhp khu ca Hoa K lun b nh hng ca h thng ny, ch yu l hng ho cht. Ti Vng Tokyo, ASP chu s ph phn mnh m ca Cng ng Kinh t Chu u v iu ny dn n gii php mt phn i vi hng ho cht. H thng ny b hu b nh c o lut v cc hip nh thng mi 1979 m Hoa K chp nhn nhng nguyn tc quy nh trong Hip nh ca Vng Tokyo v vic thc hin iu VII (nh gi hi quan). Xem Vitamin B12 v tranh chp xung quanh vic chuyn t H thng ASP sang nhng quy tc v nh gi hi quan.

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Analytical Index: Sch phn tch chi tit

y l hng dn i vi vic gii thch v p dng GATT (Hip nh chung v thu quan v thng mi) c Ban php l ca WTO chun b, c nh k cp nht v ti bn. Ni dung ca hng dn c c kt t ngun ti liu chnh thc ca GATT. Sch phn tch c gii thch rt chi tit v cc iu ca GATT do cc nc thnh vin, ban hi thm gii quyt tranh chp, v.v... a ra. V mt php l, y l cng c c bn ca nhng ai tham gia phn tch chnh sch thng mi. Xem thm GATT Basic Instruments and Selected Documents.

Andean Pact: Hip c Andean

Hip c ny c hnh thnh vo nm 1969 v c xem nh l mt tiu nhm ca LAFTA (Khu vc Thng mi t do M La-tinh) vi mc tiu nhm iu phi chnh sch cng nghip v u t nc ngoi. Cc nc thnh vin l Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuardor, Peru v Venezuela.

Andriessen Assurance: m bo Andriessen

y l mt tho thun c m phn vo nm 1985 gia Cng ng Kinh t Chu u v Australia nhm gi mt s th trng th b Chu khng c tr cp. Frans Andriessen l B trng ca EEC v nng nghip thi .

Annecy Tariff Conference: Hi ngh Thu quan Annecy

Vng th 2 trong 8 vng m phn thng mi a phng, c t chc ti Annecy, Php t thng 4 n thng 8/1949. Mc tiu c bn l nhm to thun li cho vic gia nhp GATT ca 10 nc (an-mch, Cng ho Dominica, Phn-lan, Hy-lp, Haiti, Italia, Liberia, Nicaragua, Thu-in v Uruaguay), l nhng nc khng tham gia cc vng m phn thu quan ti Genve 1947. Ti hi ngh ny, Uruguay khng tham gia cho n tn 1953. Xem thm Tariff Conference.

Anti-circumvention: Bin php chng trn trnh

y l bin php do Chnh ph p dng nhm ngn nga vic trn trnh thu chng ph gi. Mt s cng ty tm cch n trnh nhng thu bng nhiu cch, trong c cch lp rp cc b phn nc nhp khu hay nc th ba, hoc bng cch chuyn ngun sn xut v xut khu ti mt nc th ba. Thut ng c dng trong WTO khng lin quan n cc trng hp gian ln, nhng trng hp c gii quyt bng nhng th tc php l thng thng ca cc nc c lin quan. Cc quy nh v chng trn trnh c a vo chng trnh ngh s cc cuc m phn ca Vng Uruguay v Hip nh chng ph gi cng nh Hip nh v Tr cp v cc bin php i khng nhng khng t c tho thun no. Mt chng trnh lm vic hin nay ang c tin hnh ti U ban ca WTO v cc hot ng chng ph gi. Xem thm anti-dumping measures, dumping v screwdriver operations.

Anti-competitive practices: Cc hot ng phn cnh tranh

Thng c gi l cc hot ng kinh doanh hn ch hoc cc hot ng kinh doanh khng lnh mnh. Cc cng ty s dng hot ng ny hn ch mc m h b chi phi bi c ch gi. iu ny c th thc hin c khi mt cng ty hoc mt nhm cc cng ty c u th th trng hoc sc mnh th trng. Trong mt s trng hp, n lin quan n s thng ng gia cc cng ty. Xem thm antitrust, cartel, conduct v trade and competition policy.

Anti-dumping measures: Cc bin php chng ph gi

Loi thu c bit nh vo hng nhp khu khi mt cng ty b nh gi l bn hng ho ti th trng nc nhp khu mc gi thp hn mc gi tnh trn cng loi sn phm th trng trong nc. Do , c th coi cc bin php chng ph gi nh mt hnh thc t v. Theo quy tc ca WTO, cc bin php chng ph gi ch c p dng khi n gy thit hi i vi nn cng nghip trong nc sn xut ra nhng sn phm tng t nc nhp khu. Khi nim th n gin nhng vic thc hin n dn n mt h thng qun l hnh chnh phc tp v c qu nhiu iu khon c s dng cn phi c thm nh ngha. Hip nh ca WTO v

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vic thc hin iu 6 ca Hip nh chung v Thu quan v Thng mi 1994 quy nh r cc th tc chnh xc v r rng i vi vic thc hin cc bin php chng ph gi. Mt s phng php phc tp c s dng nh gi nhng chnh lch v gi v xc nh mc tn tht. Cc bin php chng ph gi c hnh thnh nu nh gi c do cng ty nc ngoi tnh nc nhp khu thp hn mc tr gi thng thng nc sn xut. Tr gi thng thng c tnh bng nhng chi ph c nh v bin i ca sn xut cng vi mt lot cc chi ph khc thng gn lin vi sn xut v thng mi. Nu nh kinh doanh trong nc qu t, tr gi thng thng c ly l mc so snh cao nht th trng th ba hoc chi ph sn xut c tnh ca cc cng ty xut khu cng vi mc hp l trang tri cc chi ph v li nhun nh mc. Nu khng c gi xut khu, hoc l thng mi gia cc bn c lin quan vi nhau, v do ch s gi c xem l khng tin cy, mc gi xut khu c th c tnh trn c s nhng g c tnh khi bn cho mt ngi mua c lp, hoc l da trn mt s c s hp l khc. Kh nng tranh chp v mc tr gi thng thng ng n l d nhn thy. Khi nim v thit hi vt cht i vi cc ngnh cng nghip sn xut nhng sn phm tng t cn nhiu nhiu tranh ci. C GATT ln Hip nh v iu VI u khng nh ngha v thit hi vt cht, nhng Hip nh th hai li c danh sch minh ho chi tit v nhng yu t c a ra xem xt nh gi liu thit hi v vt cht c xy ra hay khng. Danh sch ny cha c xem l ton din v bao gm s suy gim thc s hoc tim nng v doanh s, li nhun, sn lng, th phn, nng xut, hon vn u t hoc tn dng nng lc; cc yu t nh hng ti gi trong nc; bin ph gi; nhng nh hng thc s v tim tng i vi lung tin mt, my mc, cng n vic lm, lng bng, s tng trng, kh nng tng vn hoc u t. c nhiu ngi vit v ngha ca "sn phm tng t" v liu n c c hiu l sn phm ging nhau, sn phm tng t, hoc sn phm khc nhau nhng c gi tr s dng ging nhau hoc nhm t c cng mc tiu. Hip nh v iu VI hin nay lm r im ny. Sn phm tng t phi l ging nhau v mi mt. Nu khng c nhng sn phm nh vy, sn phm khc c th c chn mc d khng ging nhau v mi mt, nhng c c trng rt ging vi sn phm ang c xem xt. Cc bin php chng ph gi ch c p dng trong chng mc b p c bin ph gi, l s chnh lch gia tr gi thng thng v gi ti bin gii nc nhp khu, c iu chnh cho ph hp vi nhng chi ph bnh thng c th gn lin vi thng mi. Do , nu c quan iu tra thy c hin tng ph gi, mc bo h i vi ngnh cng nghip trong nc trn c s cc bin php chng ph gi c xem l tng i hn ch. khng phi l bin php c tnh t ng. Theo cc quy tc ca WTO, phi c chng l y mi c p dng cc bin php chng ph gi, v li cn c cc quy nh cho php cc bn b nh hng c khng co. Hip nh v iu VI nhn mnh rng vic p dng cc bin php chng ph gi phi c bng chng ca vic ph gi, thit hi, v mi lin quan c nguyn nhn gia 2 bn. Mt s khng nh khng thi, khng c bng chng chng minh, th khng c xem xt l ph hp gii quyt cc yu cu . Yu cu p dng bin php chng ph gi phi do ngnh cng nghip trong nc nu ra. Khng c p dng bin php no nu khng c s ng h ca cc cng ty i din cho 25% tng sn lng sn phm ging nhau . Ngay c khi s ph gi l nghim trng th cc bin php chng ph gi cng cha chc c p dng nu ngnh cng nghip khng chng minh c kh khn l do ph gi ch khng phi l kt qu ca nguyn nhn khc. Theo nguyn tc v mc ph gi ti thiu, khng c c hnh ng no nu nh bin ph gi thp hn 2%. Hnh ng chng ph gi vn cn nhiu tranh ci. Cc cng ty chu cc hnh ng ny v nc h i khi thy bin php ch nh l phng tin ngn cn vic nhp khu khng mong mun. iu qu thc c phn ng. Nh l hnh thc bo h t xut, cc bin php cho php Chnh ph c th tc ng n lung nhp khu. Tuy nhin, iu tra chng ph gi c th phc v mc tiu r rng bng cch chng minh vi cc nc xut khu b nghi ng l ph gi v c cu gi thnh thc s, v xut ra nhng cch thc thay th i vi sn xut v ch thng mi c th gim hoc loi b nhu cu p dng cc bin php chng ph gi. Cng cn ghi nhn l, nh Gabrielle Marceau (1994) ch ra, ph gi v lut chng ph gi khng ch l phn bit i x v bc lt v gi. l nhng ch m gia nhng h thng quc gia v cnh tranh. Hoekman (1995) khi bnh lun v cc yu cu c tnh th tc chi tit quy nh Hip nh v iu VI ghi nhn rng iu ny tr thnh mt lnh vc bo b ca chuyn mn ho i vi ngh php l nhng

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lnh th tch cc s dng bin php chng ph gi. iu ny cho thy rng tt c cc c ch cho php chnh ph c tc ng n lung nhp khu to ra mt hnh nh xu. Trong trng hp p dng cc bin php chng ph gi, cc nh nhp khu than phin v nhng nh hng ngn cn thng mi, nhng cc ngnh cng nghip nhng nc nhp khu cho rng nhng bin php nh l nhng phng tin chm chp v vt v gii quyt ngay vn . Lun c mu thun gn lin vi vic p dng cc bin php chng ph gi. Nh K W Dam (1970) ch ra rng, nhng ngi son tho GATT c v c 2 lp trng v vic gii quyt ph gi nh th no. H thng nht iu VI rng ph gi l iu khng mong mun nhng phn cn li ca iu , h li hn ch cc iu kin m theo cc bin php chng ph gi c th c p dng. Ngy nay, c mt quan im mnh m gia mt s cc nh hoch nh chnh sch thng mi rng chnh sch cnh tranh c th l cng c tt hn gii quyt cc trng hp ph gi nhng vi iu kin tt c cc nc thnh vin ca WTO sn sng theo ui nhng chnh sch cnh tranh c hiu qu. Cho ti khi iu ny xy ra, quy tc v chng ph gi vn to nn mt c ch r rng, nu n l hp php v i khi c thiu st, gii quyt nhng lo ngi do cng ng thng mi a ra. Xem thm Agreement on Safeguards, boomerang clause, competition policy and anti-dumping measures, de minismis dumping margins, lesser duty principle v predatory pricing.

Antitrust laws: Cc o lut chng c quyn

y l mt phn cc quy nh to nn chnh sch cnh tranh. Lut ny nhm m ra mi trng cnh tranh dnh cho cc cng ty thng qua vic bo m rng h khng lm dng sc mnh th trng th trng trong nc, mc d, c bit l th trng Hoa K, lut chng c quyn c mt tm c quan trng ngoi phm vi lnh th. Thut ng "chng c quyn" bt ngun t khi nim trong chnh sch ca Hoa K vo nhng nm 1880, 1890 l c mt s ngnh cng nghip, c t chc thnh nhng cng ty (t-rt) c ln vi quyn lnh o c tn, lm suy yu c ch gi. o lut Sherman c thng qua 1890 vn cn l hn tng v biu tng ca lut chng c quyn Hoa K. Bn bo co ca U ban H ngh vin 1994 ghi nhn rng "trc ht, chng c quyn c ngun gc t nhng u i khc bit ca Hoa K i vi a cc, t do thng mi, tip cn th trng, v c l quan trng nht trong tt c l t do la chn". Hnh pht i vi nhng trng hp c chng minh v s vi phm lut chng c quyn Hoa K thng rt nghim khc v kh nng hnh pht ca to n gy tn tht gp ba i vi nhng ngi vi phm. Xem thm cartel, Clayton act, extraterritoriality v Webb-Pomerence act.

Antitrust enforcement guidlines for international operations: Hng dn thc hin chng c quyn trong cc hot ng quc t

Mt tp hp cc hng dn do B T php v U ban thng mi Lin bang Hoa K ban hnh ln mi nht vo thng 4/1995. Nhng hng dn gii thiu cho cc doanh nghip tham gia cc hot ng quc t cc vn lin quan n vic thi hnh lut chng c quyn. Nhng hng dn bao gm c nhng lnh vc chng hn nh ti phn v hnh vi v cc thc th bn ngoi Hoa K, s lch thip, h tr ln nhau trong vic thc hin lut chng c quyn quc t, nh hng ca vic tham gia ca chnh ph nc ngoi ti trch nhim chng c quyn ca cc cng ty t nhn. Xem thm effects doctrine, extraterritoriality, negative comity v positive comity.

ANZCERTA: Hip nh thng mi lin kt kinh t cht ch hn gia Australia v New Zealand

Thng c gi l CER. Hip nh ny c hiu lc vo 1/1/1983 v c xem xt li vi ln k t . Ngoi hng ho v dch v, Hip nh ny cp mt s vn chng hn nh cng nhn tiu chun, cng nhn ln nhau v hng ho v ngh nghip, v.v... Xem thm Trans-Tasman Mutual Recognition Arrangement.

ANZCERTA protocol on trade in services: Ngh nh th ca ANZCERTA v thng mi trong lnh vc dch v

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Ngh nh th ny c thng qua vo 1988 a thng mi trong lnh vc dch v vo khun kh chnh thc ANZCERTA. Ngh nh th cp ti tt c thng mi dch v gia Australia v New Zealand, ngoi tr cc hn ch i vi mt s nh cc hot ng c th nu 2 ph lc. Khng c mt hot ng mi no c b sung vo cc ph lc v cc cuc tho lun song phng nh k dn n vic rt bt hoc tht cht cc iu kin. C cu ca Ngh nh th ny phn nh trc hu ht cc nt c trng ca GATS (Hip nh chung v thng mi trong lnh vc dch v). Xem thm negative listing.

ANZSIC: Phn loi tiu chun cng nghip gia Australia v New Zealand

Vic phn loi trong cng nghip c Cc thng k Australia s dng bao gm vic sn xut s cp v mc ch thng mi v phi thng mi, khai thc m, ch to v dch v. ANZSIC bao gm 17 phn, 14 phn trong lin quan n dch v (bao gm kh t, nc, in v xy dng). Xem thm SITC v UNCPC.

APEC: Din n hp tc kinh t Chu - Thi bnh dng

c thnh lp vo nm 1989. Mc tiu c bn ca APEC bao gm (a) gi vng s tng trng v pht trin trong khu vc, (b) tng cng mt h thng thng mi a phng m ch khng phi l vic hnh thnh khi thng mi khu vc, (c) tp trung vo kinh t ch khng phi l cc vn an ninh v (d) khuyn khch s ph thuc ln nhau mang tnh xy dng bng vic khuyn khch lung hng ho, dch v, vn v cng ngh. Chng trnh ngh s chnh ca APEC l ph b hng ro thng mi v u t gia cc nc thnh vin vo nm 2020. Cc nc pht trin cam kt thc hin iu ny vo 2010. Mt s nhm lm vic c thnh lp thc y s hp tc trong hng lot cc vn , c bit l trong lnh vc thun li ho kinh doanh v trao i thng tin. Cc nc thnh vin APEC l Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Trung Quc, Hng kng, Indonesia, Nht, Hn Quc, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, New Zealand, Singapore, i-loan, Thi-lan v Hoa K. APEC c Ban th k nh t ti Singapore. Xem thm Bogor Decleration, Manila Action Plan for APEC, open regionalism, Osaka Action Agenda, Seoul Declaration v cc t mc khc bt u bng APEC.

APEC Business Advisory Council (ASAC): Hi ng t vn doanh nghip APEC

c thnh lp vo 11/1995 ti Hi ngh B trng APEC Osaka bo m s hp tc lin tc v tham gia tch cc ca gii doanh nghip v t nhn trong tt c cc hot ng ca APEC.

APEC Committe on Trade and Investment (CTI): U ban APEC v thng mi v u t

c thnh lp vo 1993. U ban qun l cc chng trnh lm vic tp trung vo t do ho v thun li ho lung thng mi v u t trong khu vc APEC, c bit trong cc lnh vc nh chnh sch thng mi, trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, ni lng th ch, doanh nghip va v nh, tiu chun v s ph hp, th tc hi quan, chnh sch cnh tranh, quy ch xut x, u t v cc bin php phi thu quan, v.v...

APEC Economic and Technical Cooperation: Hp tc kinh t v k thut APEC

Mt trong ba ct tr ca chng trnh ngh s lm vic ca APEC. N nhm h tr vic t c mc tiu ca APEC bng vic xy dng cc khi nim chnh sch chung, thc hin cc hot ng chung, tham gia trong cc cuc i thoi v chnh sch. N c thnh lp ti Hi ngh B trng APEC thng 11/1995. Cc hot ng hp tc din ra trong lnh vc pht trin ngun nhn lc, khoa hc v cng ngh cng nghip, doanh nghip va v nh, c s h tng v kinh t, nng lng, giao thng, du lch, vin thng v thng tin, d liu thng mi v u t, xc tin thng mi, bo tn ti nguyn bin, ngh c, v cng ngh nng nghip. Xem thm APEC working groups, Bogor Declaration v Osaka Action Agenda.

APEC Eminent Persons' Group (EPG): Nhm nhng c nhn xut sc APEC

c thnh lp ti Bangkok nm 1992. N bao gm nhng c nhn ni bt bao gm nhng hc gi v cc nh kinh doanh t cc nn kinh t APEC. Nhim v l a ra vin cnh di hn i vi t do ho thng mi trong khu vc. EPG pht hnh 2 bn bo co thng nin bao gm

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cc vn nh t do ho thng mi, trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, cc vn v mi trng, u t, v tiu chun. Hi ngh nguyn th APEC 1995 t chc ti Osaka tuyn b rng nhim v ca n hon thnh. N c th c thnh lp li nu c yu cu.

APEC framework for liberalisation and facilitation: Khun kh v t do ho v thun li ho ca APEC

Qu trnh t do ho v thun li ho ca APEC l nhm t c mc ch ra trong Tuyn b Bogor nh nu trong Chng trnh hnh ng Osaka. N bao gm (a) cc hnh ng ca tng nc thnh vin APEC, (b) cc hnh ng ca cc din n APEC v cc hnh ng ca APEC lin quan n cc din n a phng. Cc din n APEC bao gm U ban APEC v thng mi v u t, U ban kinh t v cc nhm lm vic APEC. Xem thm Manila Action Plan for APEC.

APEC individual action plans: Cc k hoch hnh ng ca tng thnh vin APEC

Cc k hoch ny gm cc hnh ng t nguyn ca cc nc APEC t c mc tiu ca Tuyn b Bogor. Cc k hoch ny c c th ho trong Chng trnh Hnh ng Osaka. Cc k hoch hnh c nhn gm cc hnh ng d kin ca tng nc, v, nhng ni thch ng, cc hnh ng tp th v t do ho v thun li ho thng mi v u t. Cc k hoch bao gm cc bc i trong 15 lnh vc nh sau: thu quan, cc bin php phi thu quan, dch v, u t, tiu chun v s ph hp, th tc hi quan, quyn s hu tr tu, chnh sch cnh tranh, mua sm ca chnh ph, ni lng th ch, quy ch xut x, trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, s i li ca doanh nhn, vic thc hin kt qu ca Vng Uruguay, thu thp v phn tch thng tin. Cc k hoch hnh ng ring r c nhiu chi tit v cc hnh ng ngn hn v cc chnh sch hoc cc nh hng rng hn cho di hn. Chng c cp nht thng xuyn. Xem thm rolling specificity.

APEC Leaders' Meetings: Hi ngh nguyn th APEC

Cc cuc hp khng nghi thc ca cc nh lnh o APEC cho php h chia s cch nhn i vi khu vc Chu - Thi bnh dng v a ra nh hng cho chng trnh pht trin di hn ca APEC. Hi ngh nguyn th c t chc Seattle (1993), Bogor (1994), Osaka (1995) v Manila (1996). Xem thm Bogor Declaration v Osaka Action Agenda.

APEC Ministerial Meetings: Hi ngh B trng APEC

Cc cuc hp hng nm thng c cc B trng Ngoi giao v Thng mi tham d thng qua cc chng trnh lm vic v ngn sch ca APEC, ra quyt nh i vi cc vn v chnh sch, chng hn nh c cu t chc v kt np hi vin ca APEC, a ra nh hng cho nm ti. Hi ngh B trng nm 1995 l ln th 7 v c t chc Osaka. Hi ngh ln th 8 c t chc Manila vo nm 1996, ln th 9 s c t chc Canada vo nm 1997 v ln th 10 s c t chc Malaysia vo nm 1998. Nc ng cai Hi ngh B trng cng ch tr tin trnh APEC cho nm . Xem thm Seoul Declaration.

APEC non-bingding investment principles: Cc nguyn tc u t khng rng buc ca APEC

iu l t nguyn bao gm mt lot cc quy tc c p dng i vi lung u t c thng qua ti Hi ngh B trng APEC 1994 ti Bogor. N nhm thc y mt mi trng chnh sch c biu hin bng lng tin, gim s khng chc chn, t do ho v n gin ho cc quy tc v chnh sch u t. Cc quy tc c thng qua bao gm tnh cng khai, i ng ti hu quc, lp doanh nghip, i ng quc gia, chuyn nhng, quc hu ho v bi thng, cc yu cu thc hin trong u t, khuyn khch thu v u t, gii quyt tranh chp, v.v... Xem thm World Bank Guidlines on the Treatment of Foreign Direct Investment.

APEC Pacific Business Forum: Din n kinh doanh Thi bnh dng APEC

c thnh lp ti Hi ngh Nguyn th ti Seattle vo thng 11/1993 ch ra cc vn m APEC cn tp trung nhm lm thun li ho thng mi v u t khu vc v khuyn khch

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s pht trin ca mng li kinh doanh trong c khu vc. Din n ny bao gm cc nh doanh nghip cao cp i din cho quyn li ca cc doanh nghip nh, va v ln. Din n ny pht hnh 2 bn bo co v cc vn bao gm trung gian gii quyt tranh chp, u t, tiu chun, v.v... Din n c thay th bng Hi ng t vn doanh nghip APEC theo quyt nh c a ra ti Hi ngh B trng APEC ti Osaka.

APEC Senior Officials' Meetings: Hi ngh cc quan chc cao cp ca APEC

y l cuc hp gia cc quan chc cao cp c t chc thng xuyn gia cc cuc hp B trng hng nm. Khng ging nh WTO, OECD, UNTAD v cc t chc kinh t v thng mi quc t khc, APEC khng c phi on thng trc ti khu tr s. Do , cc cuc hp ca cc quan chc kinh t cao cp s l c hi thc hin cc quyt nh ca cp B trng v chun b cc xut cho cc cuc hp ti. Xem thm APEC ministerial meetings.

APEC Working groups: Cc nhm lm vic ca APEC

APEC c 10 nhm lm vic lin quan n cc hot ng hp tc thc tin chng hn nh vic chun b cm nang k thut, mng li thng tin, cc kho o to, v.v... 10 nhm lm vic bao gm nng lng, nh bt c, pht trin ngun nhn lc, khoa hc v cng ngh cng nghip, bo tn ti nguyn bin, du lch, vin thng, xc tin thng mi, d liu thng mi v u t, giao thng vn ti.

Appellate body: C quan Phc thm

Mt c quan thng trc bao gm 7 ngi c thnh lp theo Bn ghi nh ca WTO v quy tc v th tc gii quyt tranh chp nhm nghe nhng khng n ny sinh t cc v vic c ban hi thm xem xt. C s i vi nhng khng n c hn ch trong khun kh cc quy nh ca WTO. Cc thnh vin ca c quan phc thm l nhng ngi c c quan c thm quyn tha nhn v s tinh thng trong lut php, thng mi quc t v cc hip nh lin quan ca WTO, l nhng ngi khng c lin quan vi bt k mt chnh ph no. Xem thm dispute settlement, dispute settlement body, panel v WTO understanding on dispute settlement.

Appellations of origin: Cc ch nh v xut x

Cc loi ch dn a l cho thy sn phm xut x t mt nc, mt vng hoc a phng c cht lng hoc c tnh quan h mt thit vi mi trng a l, bao gm c cc yu t thin nhin v con ngi. Chng c iu chnh bng Hip nh v s hu tr tu lin quan n thng mi ca WTO.

Applied tariff rates: Thu sut p dng

Thu sut m c quan hi quan ti bin gii thc p dng. Nhng thu sut ny trong mt s trng hp thp hn ng k so vi thu sut rng buc ca WTO t c trong cc cuc m phn thng mi hoc thu sut c lit k trong danh mc thu quan quc gia. Xem thm bingdings (goods), ceiling bindings, nominal tariff rates, single-column tariff v multi-column tariff.

Arbitration: Trng ti

Mt cch gii quyt tranh chp. Hnh thc ny mang tnh chnh thc hn trung gian gii quyt tranh chp nhm a cc bn tranh chp li vi nhau, mang t tnh php l hn cc th tc phc tp ca to n. Cc bn nht tr p dng trng ti thng rng buc ln nhau vo cc quy tc r rng v th tc. Cc bn thng ng trc vi nhau rng phn quyt ca trng ti a ra l rng buc i vi cc bn. Th tc trng ti thng c bit hu ch khi cc bn tranh chp mun tm ra mt gii php bnh ng v dt khot i vi vn . Xem thm dispute settlement v WTO understanding on dispute settlement.

Arm's-length pricing: Cch tnh gi si tay

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y l mt nguyn tc c a ra nhm nh gi liu gi th trng tnh i vi hng ho v dch v bun bn trn th trng quc t c b thay i hay khng. Mc tnh gi si tay thng c nh ngha l mc gi c tnh gia cc cng ty kinh doanh c lp khng c quan h trong cc trng hp tng ng. Cc phng php nh gi tiu chun ny c tho ng hay khng c th l rt phc tp. Xem thm transfer pricing.

Arrangement for the Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods: Tho thun v ngn chn cc ch dn sai hoc la o v ngun gc hng ho

Xem Madrid Agreement.

Arrangement on Guidlines for Officially Supported Export Credits: Tho thun v hng dn tn dng cho xut khu c h tr chnh thc

y l cam kt khng rng buc ca OECD c k ln u vo nm 1978. Cam kt ny nhm bo m mt th trng tn dng xut khu c trt t v trnh cnh tranh gia cc nc a ra cc iu kin tn dng u i hn. K t n nay cam kt c cp nht nhiu ln. Cam kt p dng i vi tn dng xut khu c Chnh ph trc tip gia hn v h tr hoc thay mt Chnh ph c chnh ph bo m. Cam kt ny cng p dng vi cung cp ti chnh u i theo chng trnh tr gip nu nh vic cho vay b rng buc bng vic mua hng ca nc ti tr.

Article 113 Committee: U ban iu 113

U ban ny c tn gi ny t iu 113 ca Hip c Rome cho php Cng ng Kinh t Chu u hnh ng da trn cc nguyn tc thng nht v thu quan, chng ph gi, cc hip nh thng mi, t do ho thng mi, v.v... U ban Chu u, pht ngn v m phn thay mt cc nc thnh vin ti WTO, phi tin hnh cc cuc m phn thng mi c tham kho kin U ban ny. Xem thm Common Commercial Policy v subsidiarity.

ASEAN: Hip hi cc quc gia ng Nam

c thnh lp nm 1967 thc y s tin b kinh t v n nh chnh tr trong khu vc. Hip hi ny bao gm Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thi-lan v Vit Nam. Lo, Myanmar (Burma) tr thnh thnh vin vo thng 7/1997. Xem thm AFTA.

ASEAN framework agreement on services: Hip nh khung ASEAN v dch v

Hip nh ny c Chnh ph cc nc ASEAN thng qua vo ngy 15/12/1995. Hip nh ny nhm (a) tng cng hp tc trong lnh vc dch v gia cc nc thnh vin nng cao hiu qu v tnh cnh tranh ca cc nh cung cp dch v ca ASEAN v a dng ho kh nng sn xut, cung cp v phn phi dch v trong v ngoi ASEAN, v (b) gim c bn nhng hn ch i vi thng mi trong lnh vc dch v gia cc nc thnh vin v t do thng mi trong lnh vc dch v bng vic m rng chiu su v phm vi t do ho qu cc cam kt ti GATS vi mc tiu hin thc ho khu vc thng mi dch v t do. iu II tm kim kh nng hp tc thng qua thit lp v ci thin cc phng tin c s h tng, cng sn xut, v cc tho thun tip th v mua sm, nghin cu v pht trin, trao i thng tin. iu III i hi cc nc thnh vin phi t do ho thng mi trong mt s ln cc lnh vc dch v trong phm vi thi gian hp l thng qua vic xo b cc bin php phn bit i x v cc hn ch v tip cn th trng v ngn cm p dng cc bin php hn ch mi. Theo iu IV, cc nc thnh vin phi tham gia vo cc cuc m phn v cc bin php nh hng ti cc lnh vc dch v c th. iu V cho php cng nhn ln nhau v trnh , gio dc, kinh nghim v bng cp, nhng khng i hi cc nc thnh vin lm nh vy. Hip nh ny quy nh rng cc quy nh ca GATS s p dng i vi cc vn khng c cp n. Xem thm AFTA.

ASEAN Free Trade agreement: Hip nh Khu vc Thng mi t do ASEAN

Xem AFTA.

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ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme (AICO): Chng trnh Hp tc cng nghip ASEAN

Chng trnh pht trin cng nghip c cc nc thnh vin ASEAN thng qua vo thng 12/1995 thc y u t trong lnh vc cng nghip da nhiu vo cng ngh v tng cng cc hot ng tng tr gi trong sn xut hng ho v dch v. Chng trnh ny thay th chng trnh Lin doanh cng nghip ASEAN. c hng li ch ca AICO, mt lin doanh hp tc phi bao gm t nht 2 cng ty t cc nc ASEAN khc nhau, v nhng cng ty phi c t nht 30% c phn ca cc nc ASEAN. Sn phm c ph chun ca cc thc th AICO c hng mc thu u i i vi thng mi trong ASEAN l t 0-5%. Tt c cc sn phm, tr nhng sn phm quy nh theo iu 9 (Ngoi l chung) ca Hip nh CEPT, s thuc AICO.

ASEAN Industrial Joint Venture Scheme: Chng trnh Lin doanh cng nghip ASEAN

Xem ASEAN Industrial Cooperation Scheme.

ASEAN Investment Area: Khu vc u t ASEAN

Mt chng trnh hp tc c a ra nhm to iu kin thun li cho u t v c th t do ho u t gia cc nc thnh vin ASEAN. Xem thm AFTA.

Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM): Hi ngh -u

y l cuc hp gia lnh o chnh ph ca Lin minh Chu u v cc nc ASEAN, Nht, Trung Quc v Hn Quc c t chc t 2-3 nm 1 ln. Cc Hi ngh B trng gia cc k hp trn cng c d nh t chc. Cuc hp u tin ca ASEM l vo thng 3/1996 ti Bangkok.

Assistance: Tr gip

Khi nim nh hn bo h nhng c cng ngha v nh hng.

Associated foreign direct investment: u t trc tip nc ngoi lin kt

c UNTAD nh ngha l u t trc tip nc ngoi c bt u bng vic thnh lp mt cng ty con hoc vic m rng cc cng ty con. Khon u t phi tun theo ngi lnh o. Xem thm sequential foreign direct investment.

Association agreements: Cc hip nh lin kt

Cc hip nh gia Cng ng Chu u, cc nc Trung v ng u v mt vi nc ang pht trin mang li cho nhng nc ny nhng tip cn th trng u i vo th trng Cng ng chu u. Cc lnh vc nhy cm c th khng chu s iu chnh ca nhng Hip nh , v vic k cc hip nh ny khng c ngha l trong tng lai s t ng l thnh vin Cng ng Chu u. Nhng hip nh k vi cc nc Trung v ng u cng c bit n nh l cc Hip nh Chu u. Khong 70 quc gia ACP lin kt ring r vi Cng ng Chu u thng qua Cng c Lom. Xem thm hubs and spokes.

Association of Caribbean States: Hip hi cc quc gia vng Ca-ri-b

i vo hot ng t thng 8/1995. Hip hi ny bao gm 25 nc M La-tinh v vng Ca-ri-b, k c 14 thnh vin ca Caricom, vi mc ch hnh thnh mt nhm thng mi ng th 4 th gii. Vo thng 12/1995, Hip hi ny thng qua chng trnh hnh ng nhm t do ho thng mi thng qua cc bin php hi nhp kinh t gia cc nc thnh vin, k c t do ho thng mi, u t, giao thng v cc lnh vc lin quan khc; thc y v thun li ho thng mi v u t v thc y giao thng v du lch ca khu vc. Ban th k c t Port-of-Spain, Trinidad v Tobago.

Association of Tin Producing Countries: Hip hi cc nc sn xut thic

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c thnh lp vo nm 1983 vi mc tiu t c ngun thu xng ng v bnh ng cho cc nh sn xut thic, v ph hp vi ngi tiu dng mc gi cng bng v n nh. Cc nc thnh vin l Bolivia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thi-lan v Zaire.

Asymmentrical trade agreements: Cc Hip nh thng mi khng tng xng

y l nhng hip nh thng mi song phng t ra nhng ngha v khc nhau i vi hai bn. iu ny c th l mt thi gian biu khc nhau i vi vic gim thu hoc vic loi b cc bin php phi thu quan. Trong mt s trng hp khc, mt bn c th min thu i vi nhng sn phm ca cc bn khc vo nc m khng cn i hi mt s i x tng t tr li. Xem thm Caribbean Basin Initiative, GSP, Lom Convention v SPARTECA nh nhng v d ca nhng hip nh loi ny.

Asymmentrical trade openness: M ca thng mi khng tng xng

Quan im v h thng thng mi ton cu da trn s bt bnh ng thc s v nhn thy c i vi vic tip cn th trng cc nc xut khu. Quan im ny c thnh hnh c bit Hoa K vo nhng nm 1980 nh mt phn ca vic phn tch s thm ht thng mi ngy cng tng. N c da trn gi thit rng Hoa K m ca th trng nhiu nht, v rng Hoa k gn b hon ton vi cc nguyn tc thng mi a phng. Nhng nc khc c xem nh l km m hn nhng mc khc nhau v tham gia vo h thng bun bn, nhng cc nc c c li ch ging nhau nh vic m ca ca Hoa K. Theo nhng ngi xng quan im ny, vic gim s khng tng xng c th t c thng qua nhng chnh sch thng mi quc gia v a phng thch hp. Xem thm aggressive unilateralism, mercantilism, Section 301 v Super 301.

Atlantic Charter: Hin chng i ty dng

y l kt qu ca Hi ngh i ty dng vo thng 8/1941 gia Tng thng Hoa K Roosevelt v Th tng Anh Churchill, Hi ngh a ra trong on 4 v 5 mt nh ngha u tin v ch ngha a phng m n s nh hng vic ti thit sau chin tranh. Hin chng ny th hin mong mun ca Hoa K v Anh "trong khi vn tn trng cc ngha v hin hnh, s cho tt c cc nc d ln d nh, thng trn hay bi trn, c tip cn bnh ng ti thng mi v nguyn liu ca th gii cn thit cho s thnh vng ca nhng nc ". Cm t "ngha v hin hnh" l dnh s tu chn cho nc Anh lin quan n tho thun u i ca ch. on 5 vit "... h mong mun em li s lin kt ton din gia cc quc gia trong lnh vc kinh t vi mc tiu bo m cho tt c cc tiu chun lao ng c nng cao, s pht trin kinh t v an ton x hi". Theo thi gian, nhng tng dn n cc hip nh Bretton Woods v cui cng l GATT.

At-the-border barriers: Cc hng ro ti bin gii

Bao gm ch yu l thu quan, cc bin php phi thu quan, k c hn ngch nhp khu. Mt s ngi thm t gi hi oi vo loi ny nhng thng khng phi l phm vi ca cc b thng mi. Xem thm behind-the-border issues.

Audiovisual services: Cc dch v nghe nhn

Vic sn xut, phn phi v trin lm cc phim nh, bng hnh. Mt s lnh vc chnh sch nhy cm tp trung vo lnh vc ny. Cc lnh vc ny bao gm nhng i hi v c trng vn ho, bo h quyn s hu tr tu v mc tiu nhm t do ho thng mi. Cc lnh vc ny t t mnh ra khi nhng thay i nhanh chng trong cng ngh v kh nng mi v vic phn phi dch v nghe nhn m s thay i a ra. Chnh ph cc nc thnh thong p dng hn ngch phim nh v hn ch s hu i vi bo ch, i pht thanh v truyn hnh nhm bo tn nhng c trng vn ho. Xem thm audiovisual services in the Uruguay Round, broadcasting directive, local content rules in broadcasting v trade and culture.

Audiovisual services in the Uruguay Round: Cc dch v nghe nhn quy nh trong Vng Uruguay

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y l mt trong nhng lnh vc nhiu tranh ci trong m phn dch v ca Vng Uruguay m Cng ng Chu u v Hoa K l nhng nhn vt chnh. Cng ng Chu u, cng ging nh cc thnh vin khc, cm thy rng trong lnh vc ny h c nhng li ch vn ho quan trng phi bo v. i vi Hoa K, ngha quan trng ca lnh vc ny nm thc t l phim nh v bng hnh chim trn mt na gi tr xut khu dch v gii tr ca h. Hoa K thc s c c tip cn th trng tt i vi dch v nghe nhn hu ht cc quc gia, v nhng tr ngi ln v tip cn th trng khng l vn thc s i vi nc ny, tuy th h vn ro rit tm cch loi b cc hng ro hin nay. Tuy nhin, Hoa K phn i vic gia hn ch hn ngch a phng c a ra trong Ch th v Truyn hnh Chu u i vi cng ngh mi, c ch truyn tin v knh phn phi v iu ny c th ct mt ca h cc th trng d kin s m rng nhanh chng khi nhng cng ngh v dch v mi ang ngy cng c a vo kinh doanh. iu rc ri t hn i vi Hoa K l tp qun ca Chu u v vic nh thu phim nh v mc ch tr cp cho sn xut phim a phng. Nhng bt ng ny dn n mt tnh hung l cc dch v nghe nhn l lnh vc chnh duy nht khng nm trong bt k ph lc chuyn ngnh no ca GATS khi m phn kt thc, mc d tt nhin l cc quy nh ca GATS vn p dng i vi lnh vc ny. Rt t nc thnh vin ca Vng Uruguay a ra cam kt thun li v lnh vc ny. Vn bao trm c nhng lnh vc dch v v cng ngh mi ca Ch th v Truyn hnh vn cn cha gii quyt c cho n tn thng 3/1995 khi Cng ng Chu u quyt nh khng m rng phm vi ra nhng lnh vc dch v mi na. Xem thm audiovisual services, cultural specity v European Community legislation.

Australia and the third world: Australia v th gii th ba

Xem Harries Report.

Australian subsidy on ammonium sulphate: Tr cp ca Australia i vi Sulfat Amoniac

y l mt trng hp do Chile a ra phn i Australia vo nm 1950 lin quan n vic chuyn nitrate soda khi nhm phn bn c ni-t c tr cp ca Chnh ph Australia. Cho n nm 1939, c sulfat amomiac sn xut trong nc v nhp khu c phn phi mc gi thng nht thng qua mt tho thun nhm v thng mi. Khi sunpht amoniac tr nn him do chin tranh, Chnh ph vn phi nhp nitrat soda v phn phi theo cch tng tng t. Khi gi nhp khu tng hn gi th trng, Chnh ph s b chnh lch v iu ny to ra tr cp i vi phn bn nhp khu. Nm 1949, vic phn phi nitrate soda tr li knh thng mi nh trc thi chin. Chnh ph tip tc nhp khu sunpht amoniac v do gi tng ln Chnh ph b tn tht do vic phn phi cho cc cng ty qu nhiu. Tr cp i vi sunpht amoniac vn c duy tr v amonic ph thuc vo qun l gi trong nc. Nhng nitrat soda th khng. Nhm lm vic kim tra trng hp ny v thy rng Australia hnh ng ph hp vi GATT v vic rt nitrate soda khi tho thun thng mi khng lin quan n vic cm on nhp khu nitrate soda hoc thu v cc khon thu ni a khc nh ln mt hng ny. Hai loi phn bn khng th c xem nh l cc sn phm "tng t" theo nh ngha ti iu I ca GATT (i ng ti hu quc). Nhm lm vic cng thy khng cn phi xem xt tr cp i vi sulfat amoniac theo iu 16 (Tr cp) v trong bt k trng hp no khiu ni v thit hi cng khng c c s. Tuy nhin, Nhm lm vic pht hin ra rng gi tr u i dnh cho Chile b phng hi bi mt bin php khng tri vi cc quy nh ca GATT, c ngha l trng hp khng vi phm. iu ny xy ra v Chnh ph Australia nhm hai loi phn bn thnh mt v i x vi chng nh nhau v tnh trng thiu thn trong chin tranh. Australia tip tc thng l cho n nhng nm sau chin tranh. Do , Chnh ph Chile c th c gi thit hp l rng tr cp trong thi gian chin tranh cng c th c p dng cho c hai loi phn bn chng no s thiu thn phn bn ni-t trong nc vn cn tn ti. C cu vn c hiu lc vo thi im 1947 khi ang c m phn v thu quan. Hnh ng ca chnh ph Australia khng phi l bt hp l, nhng Chnh ph Chile khng lng trc c rng nhng hnh ng nh vy li c th xy ra trong khi ang m phn v thu quan nm 1947. Ban hi thm khuyn ngh Australia nn loi b s bt bnh ng v cnh tranh trong i x vi hai loi phn bn.

Australian System of Tariff Preferences (ASTP): H thng u i thu quan ca Australia

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Chng trnh ca Australia dnh i x u i thu quan i vi cc sn phm c ngun gc t cc nc ang pht trin, c a ra vo nm 1965 v c cp nht ho vi ln k t . Australia l nc u tin a ra chng trnh ny v cn c min tr ca GATT thc hin n. Min tr l cn thit bi v dnh i x u i di hnh thc thu thp hn cho mt s lng nc hn ch l tri vi nguyn tc Ti hu quc. Vic a ra GSP trong phm vi ca UNCTAD vo nm 1971 dn n s min tr chung ca GATT i vi cc chng trnh nh vy.

Australian Pacific Economic Cooperation Committee (AUSPECC): U ban hp tc kinh t Thi bnh dng ca Australia

c thnh lp vo nm 1984, chu trch nhim v s tham gia ca Australia vo Hi ng Hp tc kinh t Thi bnh dng (PECC) v c vn cho Chnh ph Australia v hp tc kinh t trong khu vc Chu Thi bnh dng. Thnh vin bao gm i din ca gii doanh nghip, hc gi v Chnh ph.

Australia-United States Antitrust Cooperation Agreement: Hip nh hp tc chng c quyn gia Australia v Hoa K

c k vo nm 1982. N a ra mt khun kh cho vic thng bo nu mi bn p dng bin php chng c quyn i vi cc cng ty ca nc kia. Hip nh ny cng quy nh c tham vn nhm trnh nhng xung t gia lut php, chnh sch v quyn li quc gia ca cc bn. Thm vo , cc bn cam kt xem xt li ch xut khu ca bn kia trong nhng hnh ng chng c quyn c lin quan. Xem thm negative comity.

Autarky: Nn kinh t t cung t cp

Mt quan im v kinh t v chnh tr nhm t c s t cung t cp ca quc gia trong sn xut. Mt nn kinh t hon ton t cung t cp ch l mt khi nim c tnh l thuyt v khng th c c trong th gii hin i. Ti nhng nc c thc hin, v d nh Albania, iu ny phi tr gi rt t cho iu kin sng. Thut ng ny hin nay i khi c s dng i vi nhng nn kinh t tm cch p ng phn ln nhu cu trong nc bt chp mi gi thng qua cc chnh sch nhm t lc, t cung t cp v ch ngha quc gia v cng ngh.

Automatic import licensing: Giy php nhp khu t ng

Xem import licensing.

Average tariff: Thu trung bnh

Mt cng c a ra mt bc tranh thng tin khi qut v mt danh mc thu quan vn thng c cc mc thp nht v cao nht. l bnh qun n gin ca tt c mc thu p dng hoc mc thu gii hn trn. Mc thu cng c dng so snh cch i x cc loi sn phm nhng nc khc nhau. Xem thm applied tariff, binding (goods), peak tariffs v trade-weighted average tariff.

B

Backdoor protectionism: Ch ngha bo h tr hnh

Vic p dng cc bin php chng hn nh tiu chun sn phm phi l v nhng quy tc cch ly kim tra nghim ngt c nh hng ti lung nhp khu. C v l, nhng yu cu c p t bo v quyn li chung v i khi, tht bt ng, l v quyn li ca ngi tiu dng. Xem thm protectionism, sanitary and phytosanitary measures v technical barriers to trade.

Backloading: p dng sau

Trong m phn thng mi, l cc cam kt t do ho c dn vo giai on cui mt thi hn tho thun. iu ny ng vi mt s cam kt ca mt s nc pht trin theo Hip

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nh WTO v hng dt may. Thut ng ny i khi cng dng ch vic lm chm li t do ho thng mi theo mt hip nh hay tho thun cho ti thi im hp php mun nht c th c. Xem thm frontloading.

Balance of advantages: Cn cn li th

y l mt nguyn tc i khi c s dng trong m phn thng mi a phng cho rng nhng li th c c t vic trao i u i trong m phn thng mi cn c cn bng rng ri gia cc nc thnh vin. S cn bng thng c c thng qua yu cu v cho cam kt. Nguyn tc ny khng da trn l thuyt kinh t v mt s l gii bt ng i vi s tn ti cn bng c a ra.

Balance of payments (BOP): Cn cn thanh ton

Bn bo co tm tt s liu tng tr gi thng mi, cc giao dch kinh t khc v lung ti chnh ca mt quc gia. BOP bao gm ti khon vng lai (giao dch vng lai), ti khon vn (giao dch vn) v khon cn bng khc phc mi kh khn trong giao dch quc t. Nhng phn v ti khon vng lai v ti khon vn ca BOP c th thng d hay thm ht nhng bn thn BOP phi lun lun trong trng thi cn bng. Ti khon vng lai l mt b phn ca BOP th hin thng mi hng ho v dch v, thu nhp v nhng khon chuyn nhng bt thng (vd: thanh ton vin tr nc ngoi, vic chuyn tin ca cng nhn, v.v...) trong mt khong thi gian nht nh. Ti khon vn ghi li lung tin vo v ra theo cc giao dch quc t di dng ti sn ti chnh chng hn nh u t v cc khon vay.

Balance of Trade: Cn cn thng mi

Cn cn gia gia xut khu v nhp khu hng ho v dch v ca nn kinh t. Xem thm trade deficit v trade surplus.

Balancing Trade: Cn bng thng mi

y l n lc him c hoc mt mc tiu di hn khng tuyn b ca cc Chnh ph bo m rng gi tr nhp khu khng vt qu xut khu. Thng thng, mi quan tm i vi thng mi hng ho ln hn mi quan tm v thng mi dch v. Khi cc nc p dng hn ch nhp khu cn bng thng mi, thng thng h ch thnh cng trong vic gim tng kim ngch v do gim phc li. Vic mt nc nhp khu hng ho nhiu hn xut khu hay khng cn tu thuc vo nhiu yu t, k c giai on pht trin kinh t v c cu nn kinh t. Thng mi hng ho c cn bng bn thn n khng phi l du hiu ca chnh sch kinh t thnh cng.

Banana cases: Cc v v chui

Hai cuc tranh chp thng mi c a ra phn x ti GATT v WTO. V th nht xy ra vo nm 1993 trong GATT gia Columbia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua v Venezuela vi Cng ng Kinh t Chu u (EEC) v c quyt nh vo u nm 1994. V ny ny sinh t vic thay i trong ch nhp khu chui ca EEC dn n khc bit v m ca th trng ph thuc vo ngun gc ca chui t trong ni b EEC, hay l t cc quc gia ACP truyn thng, cc nc ACP mi, hoc t nhng nc th ba. Nhng ngi khiu ni cho rng iu ny vi phm cc quy nh khng phn bit i x ca GATT, v EEC cng ph v rng buc thu quan ca mnh. Nhn chung, ban hi thm c yu cu phi c kt lun v tnh ph hp ca ch nhp khu trong khong 10 iu ca GATT. i vi nhiu iu trong s , Ban hi thm thy rng EEC khng phi tr tha kin. Tuy nhin, iu quan trng l Ban hi thm quyt nh rng cch thc i x u i thu quan ca EEC i vi vic nhp khu chui l tri ngc vi i ng ti hu quc c quy nh trong iu I ca GATT. Trng hp th 2 c phm vi rng hn. N c Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico v Hoa K a ra WTO vo u nm 1996 lin quan n ch nhp khu, bn v phn phi chui ca Cng ng Chu u (EC). Nhng nc khiu ni khng nh l EC lm tri vi ngha v theo GATT, GATS, Hip nh v cc bin php u t lin quan n thng mi, Hip nh v Nng nghip, Hip nh v cc Th tc cp php nhp khu. Trong bn bo co di nht t trc n nay,

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Ban hi thm thy rng EC vi phm cam kt ca h theo GATT, GATS v cc quy nh v giy php nhp khu. Mt im c bit th v trong bo co ca Ban hi thm l Ban hi thm p dng cc kha cnh ca cc quy nh lin quan n thng mi dch v cho thng mi hng ho. Cng ng Chu u khng co chng li quyt nh ny.

Bangkok Agreement: Hip nh Bangkok

Tn chnh thc l Hip nh u tin v m phn thng mi gia cc nc ang pht trin ca ESCAP. y l Hip nh nhm m rng thng mi gia cc nc ang pht trin l thnh vin ca U ban kinh t v x hi ca Chu - Thi bnh dng (ESCAP) thng qua nhng bin php thng mi cng c li. N c k vo 31/7/1975. Cc nc thnh vin l Bangladesh, n-, Lo, Hn Quc v Sri Lanka.

Bargaining Tariff: Thu quan mc c

y l tn gi c dng trong li ni ph thng i vi mc thu ca Hoa K c dng mc c gim thu quan ca cc nc khc sau vic thng qua Chng trnh cc hip nh thng mi tng h ca Hoa K vo nm 1934. Thu c hiu lc thi l thu Smoot Hawley khng th thay i c ngoi tr khi c Quc hi thng qua sa i. Evans v Walsh (1994) cng gii thch thut ng l vic duy tr hng ro thu quan khng cn cn thit dng trong m phn. Xem thm autonomous tariff, conventional tariff, multi-column tariff v single-column tariff.

Barter trade: Thng mi hng i hng

Vic trao i hng ho hoc dch v c tnh c tr gi bng nhau. S ng gp ca mi bn c th c nh gi bng ng tin ca nc th ba cho mc ch k ton, nhng c im chnh ca thng mi hng i hng l khng dng n tin. Xem thm compensation trade v countertrade.

Base period: Thi k c s

Khong thi gian, ch khng phi thi im khi u, c tho thun trong cc cuc m phn nng nghip ca Vng Uruguay v c xem nh l c s cho tt c ct gim v cam kt c. i vi vic tip cn th trng v cc cam kt h tr trong nc th thi k c s l t 1986-1988. i vi cc cam kt tr cp xut khu th thi k c s l t 1986-1990. Xem thm Agreement on Agriculture.

Basel Convention: Cng c Basel

Cng c Basel v qun l vic vn chuyn cht thi nguy him qua bin gii v x l chng, thng qua vo nm 1989 trong khun kh Chng trnh mi trng Lin hp quc (UNEP). Cng c ny nhm gim v kim sot vic vn chuyn quc t cht thi nguy him v bo m cht thi c x l theo cch bo v tt cho mi sinh. Vo thng 9/1995, cc bn tham gia cng c quyt nh sa i cng c ny nhm cm c vic vn chuyn nhng cht thi nguy him phc v cho vic ti ch t nhng nc pht trin sang nhng nc ang pht trin, bt u t 1/1/1998. Tuy nhin, mt s nc pht trin tin rng Cng c tip tc cho php to ra thng mi lnh mnh v mt mi trng gia nhng nc pht trin v nhng nc ang pht trin sau ngy .

Basic Instruments and Selected Documents: Cc vn kin c bn v cc ti liu chn lc

Xem GATT Basic Instruments and Selected Documents.

Basic telecommunication services: Dch v vin thng c bn

Bao gm in thoi, telex, fax v truyn d liu. Xem thm Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Sevices, GBT, International Telecommuniacation Union, NGBT v value-added telecomminications services.

Baumgartner proposals: xut Baumgartner

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y l mt tp hp cc kin c xut c hnh ng trong GATT vo nm 1961 ca B trng Ti chnh v Kinh t Php Baumgartner nhm qun l thng mi th gii i vi cc sn phm nng nghip. Bn cht ca xut ny l vic m rng m hnh Chnh sch Nng nghip chung i vi th trng ton cu, c b sung bng chng trnh Lng thc v ho bnh ca Hoa K, loi b sn xut tha. Ci gi phi tr ca k hoch ny s do nhng nc nhp khu chu. Thnh phn chnh ca c ch gi l "mc gi thng thng", c t mc cao hn hn mc gi th trng m. Xem thm agriculture and the GATT.

Beer II: Bia II

Xem second beer panel.

Beggar-thy-neighbour policies: Chnh sch li mnh hi ngi

Cc bin php thng mi hoc kinh t, chng hn nh tr cp xut khu, hn ngch v thu nhp khu, c p dng ci thin cc iu kin kinh t trong nc (v d tng thm vic lm) c nh hng lm thit hi cc nc khc. Nhng chnh sch nh vy c th dn ti nhng bin php p li tng t ca nhng nc khc. Chnh sch li mnh hi ngi c xem nh l nhn t chnh lm khot su v ko di cuc i suy thoi vo nhng nm 1930. Xem thm balancing trade, mercantilism v Smoot-Hawley tariff.

Behind-the-border issues: Cc bin php ng sau bin gii

Cc chnh sch v cc bin php c Chnh ph cc nc thng qua nhm ch yu vo nn kinh t trong nc nhng c nh hng i vi chnh sch thng mi. Cc chnh sch v cc bin php bao gm tr cp trong nc, chnh sch cnh tranh, tiu chun, cc iu kin lao ng v nhiu bin php chnh sch khc. Xem thm at-the-border barriers.

Beirut Agreement: Hip nh Beirut

Hip nh to iu kin thun li cho vic lu hnh thit b nghe nhn quc t trong lnh vc gio dc, khoa hc v vn ho. Hip nh ny c thng qua trong khun kh ca T chc Gio dc, Khoa hc v Vn ho Lin hp quc (UNESCO) vo nm 1948. Hip nh quy nh cc bn tham gia khng c nh thu nhp khu hoc p t hn ch nh lng i vi nhp khu cc nguyn liu nh.

Belgian family allowances: Chnh sch h tr gia nh ca B

y l mt trng hp c Na-uy v an-mch a ra GATT chng li B vo nm 1952. N lin quan n vic p t thu i vi hng ho c cc c quan Nh nc ca B mua t cc nc m h thng tr cp gia nh khng p ng c cc yu cu ca B. Ban hi thm kt lun rng v thu c tnh vo lc m cc c quan nh nc thanh ton mua hng ch khng phi l khi n c nhp khu nn y l vn i ng quc gia. Tuy nhin, Ban hi thm cn nhc l i n mt phn quyt dt khot rt l kh, phn no l v h thy khi nim v nh thu b li vic thiu tr cp gia nh cc nc khc th rt kh dung ho vi tinh thn ca GATT. H ghi nhn vi s th pho nh nhm khi Chnh ph B quyt nh thay i cc bin php cho ph hp vi GATT. Cc bin php ca Nht i vi hng da l mt trng hp khc ti GATT vi n lc bo v mt chnh sch x hi. Xem thm social clause v trade and labour standards.

Benifits of trade: Li ch ca thng mi

ch li ch khc vi nhng li ch c tha nhn trong l thuyt li ch ginh c t thng mi. Khi nim ny ch ra rng hai nc vi nhng c cu gi c khc nhau s t c ngun thu kinh t nhiu hn nu h bun bn vi nhau ch khng phi nu nh h da vo nn kinh t t cung t cp. L thuyt v li th so snh cng hng ti nhng ch li ca chuyn mn ho quc t. Ngoi ra cn c mt s li ch khc. Thng mi to ra s tip cn

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i vi hng t bn, my mc v nguyn liu th. iu ny dn n vic chuyn giao cng ngh thng qua vic m rng thng mi v hp tc v k thut, tng v k nng mi. Thng mi y mnh vic chuyn vn khi cc cng ty tm cch sn xut nhng nc p ng tt nht yu cu ca h. Thng mi cng em li nhng ch li khc khng phi lun lun c nhn thy nh l: nhng chnh sch chng c quyn v mi trng cnh tranh.

Benelux: Lin minh gia B, H-lan, Luxemburg

Mt lin minh hi quan c hnh thnh vo nm 1948 gia B, H-lan v Luxemburg. Cc k hoch thnh lp mt lin minh kinh t gia 3 nc ny c thay th bng vic h tham gia sng lp Cng ng Kinh t Chu u vo 1/1/1958.

Benign mercantilism: Ch ngha trng thng n ho

Xem mercantilism.

Berne Convention: Cng c Bern

Cng c Bern v vic bo h cc tc phm vn hc v ngh thut nhm bo v quyn ca tc gi cc tc phm vn hc v ngh thut. N c hon thnh vo nm 1886 v c sa i vi ln k t , ln cui cng l vo nm 1971. Mc tiu c bn ca ln sa i cui cng l chuyn Cng c theo hng bo h thng nht c bn tt c cc nc thnh vin. Cng c ny do WIPO gim st. Xem thm intellectual property v Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.

Bicycle theory: L thuyt chic xe p

y l mt xut m h thng thng mi a phng phi lin tc hng ti trc thng qua cc vng v hip nh t do ho lin tc nu n mun duy tr tnh t do ho. Theo l thuyt ny, h thng c th b ging nh chic xe p khi gin cch gia cc chu k t do ho l qu lu s cho php cc quan im v hnh ng bo h chim u th. Xem thm protectionism.

Big Emerging Markets (BEM): Nhng th trng ln mi ni

Vic phn loi c cc c quan Chnh ph Hoa K p dng i vi 12 th trng m theo quan im ca B Thng mi l c th tng ng, ly v d, v quy m vi xut khu ca Hoa K sang th trng Cng ng Chu u v Nht vo nm 2000, vi gi thit l t l tng trng GDP ca cc th trng ny s tng trung bnh 6,3% mt nm t 1996 n 2000 v vic nhp khu hng ho v dch v s tng 75% vo nm 2000. Nhng th trng l: Khu vc kinh t Trung Quc (Trung Quc, Hng Kng, i-loan), n-, Hn Quc, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Nam Phi, Ba-lan, Th-nh-k v cc nc ASEAN.

Bilateral investment treaties: Cc hip c u t song phng

y l tn ca Hoa K gi cc hip nh xc tin v bo h u t ca mnh. Hip nh mu ca Hoa K bao gm quyn v ngha v lin quan n vic p dng i ng ti hu quc v i ng quc gia tu ci no tt hn; ni rng hn l i x cng bng v bnh ng; cho php nc lin minh c vo lnh th ca nc khc thnh lp, pht trin, qun l v c vn v u t v tham gia vo i ng qun l cao cp bt k quc tch no; cam kt khng p t cc yu cu thc hin; quy nh v cc phng tin c hiu qu khng nh cc i hi v cc quyn thc thi; s r rng ca cc quy nh; cc th tc phi tun theo trong trng hp tch thu; v quyn t do chuyn qu.

Bilateralism: Nguyn tc song phng; ch ngha song phng

Mt dng u i khi thc hin chnh sch thng mi quc t ch yu thng qua m phn song phng trc tip. Nguyn tc song phng cho rng s d dng t c kt qu hn nu ch lin quan n 2 bn, mt phn v cc p lc v chnh tr v kinh t hin hnh s t b sao lng. V nguyn tc, s c t hn cc yu t lm phn tn. iu ny ng trong nhng trng

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hp m c th phn nh mt cch chnh xc cc yu t to nn quan h song phng thun tu. Tuy nhin, thng thng iu ny khng thc hin c v c th mt trong cc bn cng c cc ngha v v cng mt loi vn vi cc bn th ba. Mt s ngi ng h m phn song bin cho rng y l cch duy nht t c kt qu. Lch s ca m phn song phng t gia nhng nm 1980 d bo nhng hoi nghi v tnh ng n chung ca nhn nh ny, nhng nguyn tc song phng c p dng thnh cng gii quyt mt s vn . Tnh hiu qu ca cc cc phng php song phng ph thuc vo sc mnh m phn m mt nc dng gy nh hng n thi , cch c x ca nc kia. y l mt phng php c li hn cho cc nc mnh v bt li cho li ch ca cc nc nh v va. Nguyn tc song phng cng c th lm cng thng thm i vi h thng a phng. Ngi ta t bit rng mt dng ca nguyn tc song phng c s dng trong m phn thng