CMBYkTI2

2-1

22

eesscckkþþ IIsseeggççbbéénnttaarraaggxxYYbb ((AAnn OOvveerrvv iieeww ooff tthhee PPeerr iiooddiicc TTaabbllee))

taragxYbKWCaeRKagxagelIEdlkaryl;dwgrbs;eyIgBIKImIGsrIragÁBwgEp¥kelI. enAkñúg CMBUkenH eyIgpþl;[nUvB½t’mand¾mansar³sMxan;EdlGñknwgRtUvkarsRmab;karBiPakSakñúgRkum edayELkenACMBUkeRkay. karRsavRCavGMBIKMrUkñuúgcMeNamFatuKImITaMgLay BitCa)ancab;epþImCamYynwgkargar rbs;KImIviTUCnCatiGaLWm:g;mñak;eQμaHelak Johann Dobereiner enAqñaM 1817. Kat;)ankt; smÁal;fa vamanlkçN³RsedogKñamYycMnYnkñúgcMeNamRkumepSg²énFatubI dUcCa kal;;süÚm Rsþg;cUm nig)arüÚm. Kat;)andak;eQ μaHRkumTaMgenaHfa “triads”. Gs;ry³eBlCit 50 qñaM eRkaymk elak John Newlands EdlCaCnCatiGg;eKøs)anyl;faenAeBlEdlFatuRtUv)an eKdak;tamlMdab;ekIneLIgénm:asGatUm enaHvdþénlkçN³TaMgLaymanPaBdEdl²erogral; R)aMbIFatu. Newlands )anehAKMrUenHfa c,ab;én octaves. enAeBlenaH GñkviTüasaRsþTaMg Lay)ancab;epþImEsVgrklkçN³rYmKñaénc,ab;rUb EdlGacBnül;GVI²RKb;y:ag dUecñH kareFVI karCab;Tak;TgKñaénFatuCamYynwglMdab;sMelgtRnþI hak;dUcCamanlkçN³Fm μCati. CaGkusl sMeNIrbs;Kat;RtUv)aneKesIccMGkedayGñkviTüasaRsþPaKeRcInenAeBlenaH. BIrbIqñaMeRkaymk KImIviTUCnCatirUsSIúKwelak Dmitri Mendeleev ¬Ganfa min-ed-eL-ey:v¦ )aneFVIkarbegáIteLIgnUvKMnitdUcKñaenHedayxøÜnÉg¬edayK μanCab;Tak;TgnwgtRnþI¦nig)an begáItkarrIkceRmInd¾mansarsMxan;kñúgkareRbIR)as;c,ab;Ca]bkrN_ EdlGacTsSn_Tay)an. va)anTak;TajcMNab;GarmμN_bnþicbnþÜcb:ueNÑaH rhUtdl;elak Lothar Meyer EdlCaKImIviTUCn CatiGaLWm:g;)anecjpSayesckþIraykarN_pÞal;xøÜnrbs;Kat;GMBITMnak;TMngtaragxYb. Meyer )anTTYlsÁal;faelak MendeleevÞ k¾manKMnitdUcKñaenHEdrkalBIdMbUg. Mendeleev nig Meyer esÞIrEtminTTYlsÁal;taragxYbEdlekIteLIgkñúgeBldMNal KñaenaHeT. enAkñúgsMeNIrbs;elak Mendeleev FatuTaMgLayEdleKsÁal; enAeBlenaHRtUv )anerobcMenAkñúgRTg;RTayR)aMbICYrQr edayeyagtamkarekIneLIgénm:asGatUm. Kat;)anGH GagfaFatuTI8nImYy²manlkçN³RsedogKña. Rkum I dl;Rkum VII nImYy²manRkumrgBIr ehIyRkum VIII manRkumrgbYn. karerobcMmYykñúgcMeNamkarerobcMTaMgLayrbs;Kat;RtUv)an

esckþIsegçbéntaragxYb

2-2

bgðajkñúgrUb2.1. edIm,IeFVI[R)akdfaKMrUenAkñúglkçN³énFatuTaMgLayRtUvnwgtaragvaCa karcaM)ac;TukcenøaHTMenr.

I II III IV V VI VII VIII H Li Be B C N O F

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K Ca Ti V Cr Mn FeNiCoCu

Cu? Zn As Se Br Rb Sr Yt Zr Nb Mo RuPdRhAg

Ag? Cd In Sn Sb Te I Cs Ba Ce Er La Ta W OsPtIrAu

Au? Hg Tl Pb Bi Th U

rUb2/1³ karerobcMmYykñúgcMeNamkarerobcMTaMgLayéntaragxYbrbs; Mendeleev Mendeleev )ansnμtfacenøaHTMenrTaMgenHRtUvnwgFatuEdlminsÁal;. Kat;)anRbEkkfa lkçN³énFatuEd;l)at;TaMgenH GacRtUv)aneKTsSn_TayedayEp¥kelIKImIénGatUmCitxagenA kñúgRkumEtmYy. ]TahrN_ FatuEdl)at;enAcenøaHsuIlIkUn nigsMN)a:haMg Edl Mendeleev ehAfa eka-silicon (Es) enaHGacmanlkçN³kNþalrvagsuIlIkUn nig sMN)a:haMg. tarag 2.1 eRbobeFobkarTsSn_Tayrbs; Mendeleev CamYynwglkçN³énEs‘rm:anIj:Úm EdlRtUv)an eKrkeXIj 15qñaMeRkaymk. tarag2/1 eRbobeFobkarTsSn_Tayrbs; Mendeleev sRmab; eka-silicon niglkçN³Bit énEs‘rm:anIj:Úm

Fatu m:asGatUm dg;suIet¬g.cm-3) rUbmnþGuksuIt rUbmnþkørY eka-silicon 72 5.5 EsO2 EsCl4 Es‘rm:anIj:Úm 72.3 5.47 GeO2 GeCl4

eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday taragxYb Mendeleev manbBaðacMbgbI³ 1-RbsinebIkareyagtamlMdab;ekIneLIgénm:asGatUmRtUv)aneKeFVItamrhUt enaHFatu TaMgLayminEtgEtRtUvnwgRkumEdlmanlkçN³RsedogenaHeT. dUecñH lMdab;énnIEkl nig kU)al; RtUvEtbRBa©ask¾dUcCalMdab;énGuIy:Ut nigEtlYEdr. 2- FatuEdlRtUv)aneKkMBugEtrkeXIj dUcCaGulmJ:Úm nigsam:arüÚmBuMGacmancenøaH TMenrdak;)aneT. PaBlM)akenHKWCakarKYr[x μas;eGonNas;.

CMBYkTI2

2-3

3- FatuTaMgLayenAkñúgRkumCamYyKña eBlxøHmanskm μPaBKImIepSgKña. PaBmin RsbKñaenHBitCaRtwmRtUvcMeBaHRkumTImYyEdlmanelah³Gal;kaLaMgskm μxøaMg nigelah³ GskmμxøaMgdUcCaTg;Edg R)ak; nig mas. \LÚveyIgdwgehIyfa vamankMhusmYyepSgeTot³ edIm,IbegáItRkumFatuTaMgLayy:ag ehacNas;manFatumYyRtUvEteKsÁal;rYcCaeRsc. BIeRBaHEtenAeBlenaHBuMman]s μ ½nkMrMMNa mYyRtUv)aneKsÁal;enaHeT ehtuenHk¾BMumancenøaHTMenrsRmab;vaEdr. pÞúymkvij cenøaHTMenrxøH enAkñúgtaragxYbMendeleev mankarPan;RcLMTaMgRsug. enHk¾eRBaHEtKat;Büayamdak;FatuTaMg LayeTAkñúgCYr¬xYb¦énFatuR)aMbI. \LÚvenH eyIgdwgfaxYbTaMgLayminR)akdfa mansmaCik R)aMbIenaHeT b:uEnþvaCMnYsedaykarekIneLIgy:ageTogTat;³ CYrEdlbnþKñamanFatu 2/ 8/ 8/ 18/ 18/ 32/ nig 32. s

esckþIsegçbéntaragxYb

2-4

karcab;epþImxYbfμ I EtgEtRsbKñaeTAnwgkarbgðajeGLicRtugTImYyenAkñúg Grb‘Ítal; s én cMnYnkg;Ticemfμ I. cMnYnFatuenAkñúgxYbnImYy²RtUvKñaeTAnwgcMnYneGLicRtug EdlRtUvkaredIm,I bMeBjGrb‘Ítal;TaMgenaH ¬rUb2.3¦. enAkñúgxYbNamYy cMnYnkg;TiceménGrb‘Ítal; p KWdUcKñanwg cMnYnkg;TicemkñúgGrb‘Ítal; s xN³eBlEdlGrb‘Ítal; d mancMnYnkg;TicemticCagcMnYnmYy ehIy Grb‘Ítal;; f mancMnYnkg;TicemticCagcMnYnBIr.

Main 1s Main 1s 2s 2p 3s Transition 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f Lanthanoids 5d 6p 7s 5f Actinoids 6d 7p

rUb2/3 lMdab;énkarbMeBjGrb‘Ítal;eGLicRtugenAkñúgtaragxYb RkumnImYy²manFatuEdlmanrUbsNæaneGLiucRtugRsedogKña. ]TahrN_ FatukñúgRkum I TaMgGs;mancMnYneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA ns1 Edl n CacMnYnkg;Ticem. eTaHbICaFatuTaMg LayenAkñúgRkumEtmYymanlkçN³RsedogKñak¾eday vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkaryl;fa RKb;Fatu TaMgGs;KWyfaRbePT. dUecñH eTaHbICaGasUtnigpUsVrCaFatuEdlsßitenAbnþKñaenAkñúgRkumCa mYyKñak¾eday ]sμ½nGasUtminmanRbtikmμPaBxøaMgeT EtpUsVrmanRbtikmμPaBxøaMgNas; KWvaman RbtikmμÉkÉgCamYYyGuksuIEsnenAkñúgxül;. BIeRBaHEtTRmg;EvgéntaragxYb KWCadüaRkamEvg ehIymüa:geTotedaysarEtFatuTaMg Laycab;BILg;tandl;GuIETbüÚm nigcab;BIGak;TIj:Úmdl;NUEblüÚmbgðajnUvlkçN³KImIRsedog KñaenaH taragxYbxøIbgðajFatuTaMgBIrCYrenHenAxageRkamEpñksl;éntarag ehIycenøaHxagelI enaHRtYv)anbiTCit. rUb 2/4 bgðajBItaragxYbxøI.

18 1 2 H 13 14 15 16 17 HeLi Be B C N O F NeNa Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl ArK Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br KrRb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I XeCs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At RnFr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No

rUb2/4 taragxYbxøIbgðajelxRkum. FatukñúgRkumemRtUv)anpat;CaRsemal

CMBYkTI2

2-5

eyagtamkarENnaMrbs;RbB½nækarehAeQμaHtamEbbGnþrCati (The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, IUPAC) FatuRkumemnigFatuqøgRtUv)ancuHelxBI 1 dl;18. RbB½n§enH)anCMnYsRbB½n§cas;Edl)aneRbITaMgGkSr elxrU:muaMg EdlkMNt;sBaØa bNþal[mankarPan;RcLM BIeRBaHEtmanPaBxusKñarvagkarcuHelxrbs;GaemricxageCIg nigEpñkepSgeToténBiPBelak. ]TahrN_ enAGaemricxageCIg IIIB sMedAelIRkumEdlman ság;düÚm b:uEnþEpñkepSgeTotelIBiPBelakeRbIkartagenHsMedAelIFatuEdlcab;epþImedaybr. karkMNt;tagelxenHmineRbIsRmab;es‘rIénFatuBILg;tan(La)dl;GuIETbüÚm(Yb) nigBIGak;TIj:Úm (Ac) dl;NUeblüÚm(No) enaHeT BIeRBaHfavamanlkçN³dUcKñaeRcInkñúgcMeNamFatuenAkñúgCYrCa mYyKñaCaCagFatuEdlenAkñúgRkumCamYyKña. Rkum 1 Rkum 2 Rkum 13 rhUtdl;Rkum 18 tMNag[FatuRkumem ehIyRkumTaMgenH RtUvKñaeTAnwgkarbMeBjGrb‘Ítal; s nig Grb‘Ítal; p. Rkum 4 dl; Rkum 11 EdlRtUvnwg karbMeBjGrb‘Ítal; d enaHRtUv)ancat;fñak;CaRkumelah³qøg. EpñkcMbgénGtßbTenH KWBiPakSa eRcIneTAelIRkumem BIeRBaHfaFatuTaMgenHRKbdNþb;eTAelIlkçN³rUb niglkçN³KImITUlMTUlay bMput. eTaHbICaFatuRkum 12 eBlxøHRtUv)anbBa©ÚlkñúgcMeNamelah³qøgk¾eday vamanlkçN³ KImIepSgKñaBIes‘rIenaH ehtuenHRkum 12 nwgRtUvBicarNadac;edayELk. RkumemmYycMnYnRtUv)an pþl;[eQ μaHBiess³ elah³Gal;kaLaMg (alkali metals) ¬Rkum1¦ elah³Gal;kalINUETruW (alkaline earth metals) ¬Rkum2¦ Chalcogens ¬eRbItictYckñúgkarehAFatuRkum16¦ GaLÚEsn¬Rkum17¦ nig ]s μ½nkMr ¬Rkum18¦. FatuenAkñúgRkum11 eBlxøHRtUv)aneKehAfa elah³kak; (Coinage metals). FatuTaMgLayEdlRtUvnwgkarbMeBjGrb‘Ítal; 4f RtUv)aneKehAfa Lg;taNUGuIt (lanthanoids) ehIyFatuEdlRtUvnwgkarbMeBjGrb‘Ítal; 5f RtUv)aneKehAfa Gak;TINUGuIt (actinoids). vaFøab;RtUv)aneKehAfa Lg;tanIt (lanthanides) nigGak;TInIt (actinides) b:uEnþ karbBa©b;edayBaküfa GuIt mann½yRtwmRtUvfaGuIy:ugGviC¢mandUcCaGuksuIt. b:unμanqñaMeRkay mk IUPAC )anesñIeQ μaHfa Lg;tanUn nig Gak;TInUn b:uEnþ BIeRBaHEtkarbBa©b;edayBakü GUn KWRtUv)aneKcUlcitþeRbIcMeBaHGelah³ ¬Lg;taNUGuIt nigGak;TINUGuIt TaMgGs;Caelah³¦ karbBa©b;edayBakü GUGuIt \LÚvRtUv)aneKTTYlsÁal;. lkçN³KImIénFatukñúgRkum 3 man ság;düÚm (Sc) GuIRTIy:Um (Y) luyetsüÚm (Lu) manlkçN³Rbhak;RbEhleTAnwgLg;taNUGuIt

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Cagelah³qøg. edaysarehtuplenH FatuTaMgbIenH CaTUeTARtUv)anBiPakSaCamYyKñanwgFatu Lg;taNUGuIt KwBILg;taneTAGuIETbüÚm ¬emIlCMBUk23¦. karBitvamaneQ μaHrYmKñasRmab;Rkum 3 nigFatuLg;taNUGuIt³ FatudIkMr (rare earth elements) .

sRmab;FatuGMbUrLg;tanItRtUv)andak;eQ μaHbnÞab;TIRkugs‘uyEGttUcYtterbyEdlCakEnøgFatuTaMgLayRtUv)anrkeXIjdMbUg. FatuTaMgenHmanGuIRTIy:Um GuIETbüÚm ETbüÚm nigEGbüÚm.

eTaHbICaFatuTaMgLayenAkñúgtaragxYbRtUv)aneKerobcMeyagtamTRmg;eGLicRtugk¾eday eyIgmankarelIkElgsRmab;GatUmeGlüÚm 1s2. CaCagdak;vaCamYynwgFatu Edlman rUbsNæan ns2 déTeTotenaH elah³Gal;kalINUETruWRtUv)andak;CamYy]sμ ½nkMr ¬rUbsNæan ns2np6) BIeRBaHEtPaBRsedogKñaénlkçN³KImI ¬emIlrUb2/3¦. GuIRdUEsnrwtEtmanbBaða. eTaHbICakMENERbxøHéntaragxYbbgðajGuIRdUEsnCasmaCik Rkum1 b¤Rkum17k¾eday KImIrbs;va mindUcTaMgelah³Gal;kalINUETruW b¤GaLÚEsneT. edaysarmUlehtuenH vaRtUv)aneKdak; EtÉgenAkñúgtaragxYbedIm,IbgðajPaByfaRb ePTrbs;va. 2/2 vtþmanénFatuKImITaMgLay edIm,Iyl;BImUlehtuEdlnaM[manFatuKImICaeRcIn nigedIm,IBnül;BIPaBsMbUrEbbén FatuTaMgLay eyIgRtUvRkeLkemIlRTwsþIEdlRtUv)aneKTTYlsÁal;y:agTUlMTUlaybMputTak;Tg nwgedImkMeNIténsklelak. enHKICaRTwsþId¾FMmYyEdlsμanfasklelak)ancab;epþImBIcMNuc EtmYy. RbEhlmYyvinaTIbnÞab;BIsaklelakekItmaneLIg sItuNðPaB)anFøak;cuHRbEhldl; 1010K EdlGaceFVI[RbUtug nigNWRtugekIteLIg. kMLúgeBlbInaTIeRkaymkéNVy:UGatUm GuIRdUEsn-1 GuIRdUEsn-2 eGlüÚm-3 eGlüÚm-4 ebrIlüÚm-7 niglIcUm-7 )anekIteLIg. ¬elx EdlenAxageRkaysBaØa- tag[cMnYnm:as EdlCaplbUkRbUtug nigNWRtugénGuIIsUtUb enaH¦. bnÞab;BIb:unμannaTIdMbUgenH mksklelak)anrIkFM ehIycuHRtCak;xageRkamsItuNðPaB EdlRbtikmμrMlaynuyekøEG‘GacekItman. enAeBlenH edaysarEtvaenAEtBitrhUtmkdl; sBVéf¶enH mYyPaK FMénsklelakmanGuIRdUEsn-1 nigeGlüÚm-4. tamry³\T§iBlTMnajEpndI¬gravitational effect¦ GatUmkøayCamanmaDkñúglMhtUc tamBiteTAkarsgát; [twgenH KWFMRKb;RKan;edIm,IeFVI[manRbtikm μnuyekøEG‘beBa©jkemþA. maDlMhTaMgenH eyIgehAfapáay. enAkñúgpáay éNVy:UGatUmGuIRdUEsn)anpÞúHbeBa©jéNVy:U

CMBYkTI2

2-7

GatUmeGlüÚm-4 bEnßmeTot. RbEhlCa10PaKryéneGlüÚmenAkñúgsklelak sBVéf¶)an køaymkBIkarrlayénGuIRdUEsnenAkñúgpáay. eBlpáayFMmanGayukalkan;Et cMNas;enaH karekIteLIgéneGlüÚm-4 RBmCamYynwgkarbRgYménTMnajEpndIeTotenaHbNþal[éNVy:U GatUmeGlüÚmrYmbBa©ÚlKñaedIm,IbegáItebrIlüÚm-8 kabUn-12 ehIynigGuksuIEsn-16. kñúgeBl CamYyKñaenaH eGlüÚm-3 ebrIlüÚm-7 niglIcUm-7 EdlminrwgmaMRtUv)anbMpøaj. sRmab;pay PaKeRcIn GuksuIEsn-16 nigsñaménenGug-20 CaFatuEdlFMCageKbMput ¬elxGatUm x

esckþIsegçbéntaragxYb

2-8

enAkñúgsklelakmanFatuEdlmanesßrPaBEt80b:ueNÑaH¬rUb2/5¦. sRmab;FatuTaMg LayenHminTTYlrgkarbMEbkviTüúskmμedayÉkÉgeT. BuMmanGuIsUtUbesßrPaBekIteLIgsRmab; FatuenAxagelIGatUmsMNeT ehIyFatuBIrenAkñúgEpñkdMbUgéntarag ticencUm nigRbUemcUmman EtGuIsUtUbviTüúskmμb:ueNÑaH. FatuBIrKWG‘uyr:aj:ÚmnigtUrüÚ:m EdlmanEtGuIsUtUbviTüúskmμ RtUv)aneKrkeXIjfamancMnYneRcInelIslb;enAelIEpndI BIeRBaHBak;kNþalCIvit (half-life) énGuIsUtUbrbs;vaxøHKw 108 eTA 109 qñaM swgEtes μ IGayuEpndIxøÜnvaEtmþg.

tarag2/2 pleFobNwRtug-RbUtugsRmab;GuIsUtUbmYycMnYn Fatu cMnYnRbUtug cMnYnNWRtug pleFobNWRtug-RbUtug GuIRdUEsn 1 0 0.0 eGlüÚm 2 2 1.0 kabUn 6 6 1.0 Edk 26 30 1.2 GuIy:Ut 53 74 1.4 sMN 82 126 1.5 b‘Ísμ ú ‘t 83 126 1.5 G‘uyr:aj:Úm 92 146 1.6

karBitEdlfa cMnYnFatuEdlmanesßrPaBmankMNt; enaHGacBnül;)anedayrMlwkfa éNVy:UmanRbUtugbnÞúkviC¢man. kmøaMgcRmanEdlmanrvagRbUtugk¾dUcCakmøaMgcRmanrvageGLic RtugEdr Edl)anBiPakSaenAkñúgCMBUk1. eyIgGacnwkKitkñúgcitþfa NWRtug FmμtaCavtßú EdlEjk bnÞúkviC¢man. tarag2/2 bgðajfa eBlEdlcMnYnRbUtugekIneLIg cMnYnNWRtugkñúgGuIsUtUbPaK eRcInénFatunImYy²ekIneLIgelOnCag. putBIb‘Ísμ ú‘teTAcMnYnbnÞúkviC¢manenAkñúgéNVy:UkøayCaFM xøaMgeBkedIm,IrkSaesßrPaBéNVy:U ehIykmøaMgcRmannwgmanelIllub.

Bak;kNþalCIvitd¾EvgbMputénGuIsUtUbviTüúskmμKW 1.9x109qñaMsRmab;GatUmb‘Ísμ‘t. enHebIeRbobeFobCamYyGayusklelakvaCaRbhak;RbEhlKña1.3 x1010qñaM.

edIm,ITTYl)ankaryl;dwgBIéNVy:URbesIrCagenH eyIgGacRbDitKMrUkg;TicmYysRmab; éNVy:U. dUcCaelak Bohr )annwkKiteXIjrUbPaBeGLicRtugEdlmanenAkñúgkMritkg;Tic dUecñH EdreyIgGacnwkeXIjrUbPaBRsTab;RbUtug nigNWRtug ¬CamYyKñaehAfa nuyekøGug¦. dUecñH enA

CMBYkTI2

2-9

kñúgéNVy:U RbUtugnigNWRtugnwgbMeBjkMritfamBledayÉkÉg EdlRtUvnwgcMnYnkg;Ticem n. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday cMnYnkg;Ticm:Um:g;énmuM l KWminmanRBMEdnkMNt;eT BIeRBaHvasRmab;Et eGLicRtug. CakarBit sRmab;éNVy:U lMdab;énkarbMeBjcab;epþImCamYynwg 1s, 1p, 2s, 1d..... kMritfamBlnuyekøEG‘nImYy²RtUv)anRtYtBinitüedayc,ab;cMnYnkg;Ticm:aejTic dUcCaeGLic RtugEdr dUecñHvamankMrit s mYy kMrit p bI nigkMrit d R)aM. nuyekøGugTaMgBIrmancMnYnkg;Tic s

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2-10

eLIgenAl¶acmYy ehIynagmanlT§PaBTajykRTwsþIkMritkg;Tic nigkMritrg. rUbviTUmñak;eTot Hens Jensen )anGanKMnitrbs;nageTAelIKMrUkMritfamBléNVy:U ehIyenAkñúgqñaMEtmYyCamYy Mayer Edr Kat;)anrkeXIjRTwsþICalT§pldUcKña. Mayer nig Jensen )anCYbKñaehIy shkarKñasresresovePAcb;CasßaBreTAelITRmg;éNVy:UGatUm. edaykøayCamitþl¥nwgKña Mayer nig Jensen )anEckKñanUvBanrgVan;NUEblenAqñaM1963 Tak;TgrUbviTüasRmab; karrkeXIjrbs;BYkeKeTAelITRmg;éNVy:U. \T§iBlénkMritfamBlEdl)anbMeBjKWeXIjy:agc,as;enAkñúgKMrUGuIsUtUbesßrPaB. dUecñH sMN)a:haMgEdlman50RbUtug mancMnYnGuIsUtUbesßrPaBFMbMput ¬10¦. RsedogKñaenHEdr manFatu7epSg²KñaCamYyGuIsUtUbEdlman82NwRtug¬isotones¦ehIynwgFatu6epSg²KñaCamYy GuIsUtUbEdlman50NwRtug. RbsinebIkarmankMritkg;TiceBjeljénnuyekøGugmYyeFVI[éNVy:UmanesßrPaB enaH eyIgGacsgÇwmfaéNVyU:EdlmankMritbMeBjsRmab;nuyekøGugTaMgBIr¬EdleKehAfa éNVy:UeTV Gs©arü doubly magic nuclei) GacmanesßrPaBCag. enHCakrNIBit. CaBiess eGlüÚm-4 CamYynwg rUbsNæan 1s2 TaMgRbUtugnigNWRtugCaGuIsUtUbTUeTAbMputTI2enAkñúgsklelak ehIy éNVy:UeGlüÚm-4 ¬PaKl¥itα ¦ RtUv)anxÞatecjenAkñúgRbtikmμnuyekøEG‘CaeRcIn. RsedogKña enHEdr eyIgrkeXIjfaGuksuIEsn-16 CaéNVy:UEdlRtUvbMeBjeTVbnÞab;mkeTot Edlman 99.8% énGuksuIEsnenAelIPBEpndIenH. kal;süÚmeTAtamTisedA CamYy 97% énFatu Edl Cakal;süÚm-40. dUcEdleyIg)aneXIjenAkñúgtarag2/2 cMnYnNWRtugekIneLIgelOnCag karekIneLIgcMnYnRbUtug. dUecñH GuIsUtUbesßrPaBeTVbnÞab;KWsMN-208 ¬82 RbUtug nig 126 NWRtug¦. enHKWCa GuIsUtUbesßrPaBF¶n;CageKbMputénsMN ehIyk¾CaGuIsUtUbTUeTAbMputEdrkñúg FmμCati. rUbviTUxagnuyekøEG‘k¾mankarPJak;ep¥IlCamYynwgéNVy:UeTVGs©arüEdr. eKFøab;sÁal;R)aM kñúgcMeNaméNVy:UeTVGs©arüenHEdlmanesßrPaB ³ eGlüÚm-4 (2p, 2n) GuksuIEsn-16 (8p, 8n) kal;süÚm-40 (20p, 20n) kal;süÚm-48 (20p, 28n) nigsMN-208(82p, 126n). bEnßmBIenHeTot viTüúskm μnIEkl-56 (28p, 28n) nigsMN)a:haMg-G32 (50p, 82n) RtUv)aneK sÁal;CayUrmkehIy. GatUmeGlüÚm-10 EdlmanNWRtugeRcIn (2p, 8n) RtUv)ansMeyaKenAkñúg

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qñaM1993 xN³eBlEdlkarsMeyaKsMN)a:haMg-100 EdlmanRbUtugeRcInRtUv)aneKpSBVpSay enAqñaMbnÞab;. pleFobRbUtug-NWRtug 1.0 énsMN)a:haMg-100 KWticCagmFüm 1.4 sRmab; GuIsUtUbsMN)a:haMgdéTeTot b:uEnþBak;kNþalCIviténsMN)a:haMg-100 KwKitenAkñúgvinaTIminEmn CamIlIvinaTI EdlGacRtUv)aneKsgÇwmTuk. karsMeyaKnIEkl-78 EdlmanNWRtugeRcIn (28p, 50n) enAkñúgqñaM 1995 )anbgðajmþgeTotnUvesßrPaBEdlekItmanedaykarbMeBjsMbkéNVy:U. rUb2/6 PaBelIslubénFatuenAkñúgRbB½n§RBHGaTitüCaPaKryelITMhMelakarIt. karrkeXIjcugeRkaybg¥s;cMeBaHéNVy:UeTVGs©arü KWCakarsMeyaKnIEkl-48 ¬28p, 20n) enAkñúgqñaM 2000. vtþmanénGuIsUtUbenH ¬ehIynigBak;kNþalCIvitd¾mansar³sMxan;rbs; vay:agehacNas;0.5 sμ ¦ CamYynwgpleFobNWRtug-RbUtugTabbMput EdlRtUv)anrkeXIj cuHkalkMNt;GayuGacRtUv)aneKBnül;cMeBaHKMrUsMbkéNVy:U. Tak;TgeTAnwgsar³sMxan;TUlay CagenH karsMeyaKGuIsUtUbenHbMeBjbBa¢IénGuIsUtUbeTVGs©arüTaMgGs;EdlGaceFVI)an. Ca Biess\LÚvenHeyIgmanGuIsUtUbeTVGs©arübIénnIEkl EdlCaFatuEtmYyKt;EdlmanlkçN³enH nIEkl-48 ¬28p, 20n), nIEkl-56 ¬28p, 28n), nIEkl-78 ¬28p, 50n) . karsMeyaK nIEkl-48 k¾pþl;[eyIgnUv]TahrN_EtmYyKt; Edl)ansÁal;énKUFatueTVGs©arü³ kal;süÚm-48 (20p, 28n), nignIEkl-48 ¬28p, 20n). karsMeyaKenHnwgGaceFVI[GñkviTüasaRsþxag nuuyekøEG‘ eRbobeFobkMritfamBlnuyekøGugenAkñúgFatuKImITaMgBIrenH EdlTak;TgKña.

rUb2/6 vtþmanénFatuenAkñúgRbB½nVGaTitü

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edayxusBIlkçN³eGLicRtug s

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m.p.30ºC. RhVg;süÚmCaFatuviTüúskmμd¾xøaMgGacCaGgÁFaturavenAsItuNðPaBbnÞb; b:uEnþ cMnYn GatUmEdleK)ansikSamanticEdllkçN³rUbminGaceKRsavRCav)an. eRKagkareFVIcMEnkfñak;TUeTAmYyepSgeTotmanfñak;BIrRbePT³ elah³ nigGelah³. b:uEnþ elah³mann½ydUcemþc? kareqøIyfaelah³CaépÞPøWrelag(luster)minEmnCalkçN³vinicä½y l¥enaHeT eRBaHsRmab;FatumYycMnYnEdlRtUv)ancat;TukCaGelah³ dUcCasIulIsüÚm nigGuIy:Ut EdlCa]TahrN_BIr k¾manépÞPøWrelag. eTaHbICasmasFatumYycMnYndUcCaEr:BIrIt FeS2 RtUv)aneKsÁal;pgEdrfaCamasrbs;GñkPøIePøI (fool’s gold) emIleTACaelah³. dg;suIet k¾minEmnCakarENnaMl¥Edr BIeRBaHlIcUmmandg;suIet ½ éndg;suIetTwk ehIyGUsmJ:Úmman dg;suIetFMCagdg;suIetlIcUm40dg. PaBrwgk¾CakarENnaMminRbesIrEdr BIeRBaHelah³ Gal;kaLaMgKWTn;xøaMgNas;. lT§PaBEdlFatuGaceFVI[sMEb:teTACabnÞH¬karEp malleable¦ b¤karhUtCalYs ¬karhUtCasrés ductile¦ enAeBlxøHRtUv)aneKsm¥agfa CalkçN³TUeTAmYy énelah³ b:uEnþelah³qøgxøHmanlkçN³puyRsYy. PaBcmøgkemþAd¾x

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TwkenaHKWsMbUrCatiEr: TwkenATIRkugVichyRbeTs)araMg¬\LÚvmanCadb¦KWsMbUrGuIy:ugm:aejsüÚm Edlmanskm μPaBCafñaMbBa©úHd¾xøaMg¬sRmab;eraKTl;lamk¦. dUecñH TwkenaHKYrEtRtUv)aneKpwk enAkñúgbrimaNtictYcb:ueNÑaH.GMbilrwgm:aejsüÚms‘ulpatGibtaGuIRdaet MgSO4.7H2O man \T§iBldUcKña. vaRtUv)aneKdak;eQ μaHfaGMbilGibsUm ¬Epsom salt) bnÞab;BITIRkugkñúgRbeTs Gg;eKøs EdlCakEnøgvaRtUv)aneKrkeXIjdMbUg. GMLúgstvtSTI19mnÞIreBTümYyenAcRkPB Gg;eKøs)aneRbIR)as;GMbilenH2/5etankñúgmYyqñaMeTAelIGñkCMgW. vb,Fm’xøHGnuvtþkarsuIdI (geophagy) CaTUeTACadI\dæ. dI\dæCafñak;saMjaMumYyénEr:TaMg LayEdleyIgBiPakSaenAemeronTI14. TRmg;mYyéndI\dæKW ekALaMg (kaolin) CasarFatumYy EdleKsÁal;edaysarlT§PaBsRmUbrbs;va. RbePTRKab;fñaMmYycMnYnEdleRbIsRmab;RbqaMgCMgW QWRkBHeRbIR)as;ekALaMgEdlvaRtUv)aneKeCOfaGacRsUbépÞsarFatuBul Edlpliteday )ak;etrIpþl;TukçeTasEdleyIg)anelbcUl. dI\dænigdIepSgeTotGacpþl;[CIvCatibnþicbnþÜc. b:uEnþkarjauMdI\dæyUrminRtUv)aneKENnaMenaHeT BIeRBaHdI\dæGacsßitenAkñúgRkBH ehIykarBar min[mankarsRmUbCIvCati. dI\dæFmμCatiCaeRcInmankMhab;FatuKImIEdlpþl;eRKaHfñak;x

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kuMpøic)aøTInCaPñak;garRbqaMgmharIk¬emeronTI19¦ masenAkñúgkarBüa)alCMgWsnøak;q¥wg ¬emeronTI20¦ karcmøgcrnþGKÁisnIvimaRtbIx

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Gaesnic EtlY GacRtUv)aneKcat;TukCaPaBEdlmanlkçN³minc,as;las;fa GDÆelah³ (semimetals) ¬rUb2/8¦ EdlkalBImunRtUv)aneKehAfa elah³GMpUET (metalloids). bnÞab;BIenaHmk karEbgEckFatuKImICabIRbePTenH manPaBgayRsYleBk. vaman Rkumrgénelah³ EdlsßitenACitbMputeTAnwgbnÞat;RBMEdn EdlbgðajlkçN³KImIxøH² EdlCa ]TahrN_énBak;kNþalelah³ CaBiesskMNGaj:úg. elah³EdlmanlkçN³KImIexSay TaMgR)aMbYn KW ebrIlüÚm GaluymIj:Úm s½gásI kal;süÚm sMN):ahaMg sMN Gg;TIman; b‘Ísμ ú‘t nig b:ULÚj:Úm. Ca]TahrN_mYykñúgcMeNamRbePTGaj:úg eyIgGaceRCIsykGaluymIj:Úm. enAkñúg sUluysüúg )asxøaMg dUcEdleyIgnwgeXIjenACMBUkTI13 GaluymIj:Úm begáItGaluymINat Al(OH)-4(aq) ¬eBlxøHeKsresrAlO2-(aq)). elah³EdlmanlkçN³KImIexSaydéTeTot begáItRsedogKñanUvebrILat saMgkat hÁaLat sþaNat pøúM)at Gg;TIm:UNat b‘Ísμ Isat nig b:ULÚNat. 2/5 lkçN³tamxYb³ kaMGatUm lkçN³CaRbB½n§mYykñúgcMeNamlkçN³tamxYbKWkaMGatUm. etITMhMGatUmmann½ydUc emþc? BIeRBaHEteGLicRtugGacRtUv)aneK[niymn½yEtcMeBaHRbU)ab‘ÍlIet dUecñHvaKμanRBMEdnBit cMeBaHGatUmeT. eTaHbICay:agNak¾edayvamanmeFüa)aysamBaØBIrEdleyIgGac[niymn½y kaMGatUm. kaMkUv:aLg; rcov RtUv)an[niymn½yfa Cacm¶ayBak;kNþalrvagéNVy:UénGatUm BIrénFatuEtmYYy EdlP¢ab;Kñaedaysm

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kaMkUv:aLg;CatémøtamBiesaFn_ ehIyvamankarERbRbYld¾mansar³sMxan;cMeBaHtémøEdl )anmkBIkarvas;EvgepSg²Kña. vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkardwgfa témøxøHKWTTYl)anEtBIkarBüakr tamTMenar. ]TahrN_ GtßbTKImITUeTACaeRcIneFVICataragkaMkUv:aLg;sRmab;]s μ ½nkMrTaMgGs;. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday BIeRBaHsmasFatuéneGlüÚm enGug nigGakug minEdlRtUv)aneK sMeyaK ehtuenHvaCakarCak;EsþgfatémøTaMgenHCakarsμanminc,as; b¤CatémøtamRTwsþIb:ueNÑaH. dUcKñaenHEdr kaMkUv:aLg;sRmab;FatuCaelah³KWmankarkMNt;suBlPaB ehIykardak;témøenH CajwkjyCatémøénkaMelah³. rUb2/10 pþl;témøkaMkUv:aLg;xøHEdlGacTukcitþ)an ¬KitCa BIkUEm:t10-12m) sRmab;FatuRkum17 sRmab;Gelah³ Bak;kNþalelah³ nigelah³exSay énxYbTIBIr. eTaHbICatémøelxTaMgenHmanPaBxusKñarvagRbPBepSg²Kñak¾eday vamanTMenar TisedAdUcKña ¬EtvamankrNIelIkElgxøH¦ kaMfycuHBIeqVgeTAsþaMtamxYb ehIyekIneLIgtam RkumBIelIcuHeRkam.

Be 106

B 88

C 77

N 70

O 66

F 64

Cl 99

rUb2/10 kaMkUv:aLgKitCaBIkUEm:t(pm)Ca]TahrN_xøIénxYbnigRkum Br 114 I

133

edIm,IBnül;TisedAenH eyIgRtUvBinitüelIKMrUGatUm. eyIgcab;epþImCamYylIcUm. GatUm lIcUmmYymanbIRbUtug ehIyrUbsNæaneGLicRtugrbs;vaKW 1s22s1. TMhMGatUmBitR)akdKWRtUv )ankMNt;edayTMhMéneGLicRtugEdlmanenAGrb‘Ítal;xageRkAenAkñúgkrNIenH KWGrb‘Ítal; 2s. eGLicRtugkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 2s RtUv)ankarBarBITMnajTaMgGs;énRbUtugedayeGLicRtugkñúgGrb‘Í tal; 1s ¬rUb2/11¦. dUecñH plbnÞúkéNVy:U (effective nuclear charge, Zeff) edayeGLic Rtug2s nigticCag3 ehIyEk,r1. b:uEnþ eGLicRtugenAGrb‘Ítal;kñúgnwgminkarBareGLicRtug 2sTaMgRsugeT BIeRBaHmaDénGrb‘Ítal; 2s nig 1s Can;elIKña ehIy Zeff nwgFMCag1. karBitt émørbs;vaGacRtUv)an)a:n;sμanCaÉktabnÞúk 1/3.

GatUmFMbMputenAkñúgtaragxYbKWRhVg;süÚm.

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rUb2/11 karERbRbYlénRbU)ab‘ÍlIeteGLicRtugCa mYycm¶ay BIéNVy:UsRmab;eGLicRtugkñúg Grb‘Ítal; 1s nig 2s .

éNVy:UGatUmebrIlüÚmmanbYnRbUtugehIyrUb sNæaneGLicRtugrbs;vaKW1s22s2. vamanktþaBIr edIm,IBicarNakñúgkar)a:n;RbmaNkaMGatUmKW Zeff EdlekIneLIgCalT§plénkarekIneLIgcMnYnRbUtug

nigkM;laMgcMranrvageGLicRtugBIr EdlmanbnÞúk GviC¢man. eGLicRtug 2s nImYy²nwgTTYl Zeff x

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nwgTTYlrgkarkat;bnßyTMnajBIéNVy:U. dUecñH Grb‘Ítal;xageRkAénsUdüÚmnwgmanTMhMFM ¬bnSayénkaM¦ bkRsayBIkaMkUv:aLg;énsUdüÚmEdleK)anvas;FMCagkaMkUv:aLg;énlIcUm. vamankarERbRbYltictYccMeBaHsMeNAenH. ]TahrN_ hÁalüÚmmankaMkUv:aLg;dUc GaluymIj:ÚmEdr (126pm) EdlCaFatuKImIenAxagelIva. RbsinebIeyIgeFVIkareRbobeFobrUb sNæaneGLicRtug GaluymIj:Úm [Ne] 3s23p1 nighÁalüÚm [Ar] 4s23d104p1 eyIgeXIjfa hÁalüÚmmanRbUtug10bEnßmeTotenAkñúgéNVy:Urbs;va. eGLicRtugTaMgenHRtUvnwgeGLicRtug enAkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 3d. b:uEnþGrb‘Ítal; 3d min)ankarBarGrb‘Ítal;xageRkAl¥enaHeT. dUecñH eGLicRtugkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 4p RtUv)anTTYl Zeff x

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σ = (2 x 0.85) + (5 x 0.35) = 3.45 dUecñH σ−= ZZeff = 8 – 3.45 = 4.55. dUecñHeGLicRtugGrb‘Ítal; 2p énGatUm GuksuIEsnminrgnUvTMnajTaMgRsugBIeGLicRtugTaMgR)aMbIenAkñúgéNVy:UeT ehIyk¾minmanr)aMg srubBIeGLicRtugxagkñúgEdr. bnÞúksrubRbEhl 4.55 enAEtCaTMnajéNVy:UxøaMgmYydEdl. eTaHbICalT§plénkarKNnaedayeRbIR)as;viFan Slater pþl;[karyl;dwgén brimaNCagmunsRmab;KMniténplbnÞúkéNVy:Uk¾eday k¾PaBgayRsYlrbs;vaeFVI[viFanenH minTan;manlkçN³l¥\tex©aH. CaBiessviFansμanfa TaMgeGLicRtugenAkñúgGrb‘Ítal; s nig p enAkñúgcMnYnkg;TicemdUcKñargnUvplbnÞúkéNVy:UdUcKña. ecjBIdüaRkamGrb‘Ítal;EdleyIg)an BiPakSaenACMBUkTImYy vaCak;EsþgNas;fa enHminRtUvRKb;krNIeT. edayeRbIR)as;karKNna edayEp¥kelIGnuKmn_rlkGatUm elak E. Clementi and D.L. Raimondi )anTajyktémø BitR)akdCagenHsRmab;témøplbnÞúkéNVy:U EdltémøxøHRtUv)anbgðajenAkñúgtarag 2/3. témørbs;elak Clementi nig elak Raimondi BitCa)anbgðajtémøxusKñatUcmYyEtman sar³sMxan;enAkñúgplbnÞúkéNVy:U sRmab;eGLicRtugGrb‘Ítal; s EdlGacRCatcUl)aneRbob eFobeTAnwgeGLicRtugGrb‘Ítal; p enAkñúgcMnYnkg;TicemdUcKña. KYrkt;cMNaMfa karekIneLIgén Zeff enAelIeGLicRtugxageRkAtamxYb KWTak;Tgy:agl¥eTAnwgTisedAkarfycuHkaMGatUm. tarag 2/3 témøplbnÞúkéNVy:U sRmab;eGLicRtugénFatuxYbTIBIredayeyagtamelak Clementi nig elak Raimondi.

Fatu Li Be B C N O F Ne Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1s 2.69 3.68 4.68 5.67 6.66 7.66 8.65 9.64 2s 1.28 1.91 2.58 3.22 3.85 4.49 5.13 5.76 2p 2.42 3.14 3.83 4.45 5.10 5.76

\T§iBlrWLaTIvIs (Relativistic Effects) vamankarbRgÜmkaMGatUmsRmab;FatuTaMgLayenAkñúgxYbTIR)aMmYynigxYbelIenH eRbob eFobCamYynwgkaMEdl)anTsSn_TayTukEdl)anBIkarKNnaBImun. eyIgGacBnül;bBaðaenH edaykarxVHrbs;smIkarrlkSchrodinger Edlxkxanmin)anKitGMBI\T§iBlrWLaTIvIselIeGLic Rtug. PaBgayRsYlrbs;smIkarenHGacTTYlyk)ansRmab;FatuEdlmanm:asTab b:uEnþ cMeBaHFatuEdlenAxageRkamtaragxYb \T§iBlrWLaTIvIsminRtUv)anemIlrMlgeLIy. ]TahrN_ eGLicRtugGrb‘Ítal; 1s én)artRtUv)aneK)a:n;RbmaNfapøas;TIelIsBak;kNþalel,OnBnøW.

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el,OndUcenH pþl;plCakarekInm:asRbEhl20PaKry ehIydUecñH mankarfycuHRbEhl 20PaKryénTMhMGrb‘Ítal;sRmab;eGLicRtugTaMgenH. karbnßyTMhMenHKWmanPaBc,as;las;sRmab;Grb‘Ítal; s eRBaHeGLicRtugenAkñúgGrb‘Í tal;enHmanRbU)ab‘ÍlIetx

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dUecñHTMnajéNVy:U Zeff enAelIeGLicRtugnImYy²swgEtes μ InwgBIrdgTMnajeGLicRtugelIGatUm GuIRdUEsn. karBit vamankarCab;Tak;TgKñarvagfamBlGuIy:ugkmμTImYyénGatUm nigkarKNna témø Zeff sRmab;eGLicRtugxageRkA. cMeBaHGatUmlIcUm kareFVIGuIy:ugkmμeTAelIeGLicRtugGrb‘Ítal; 2s RtUv)ankarBarBI TMnajéNVy:UedayeGLicRtugBIrenAkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 1s. CamYynwgTMnajexSayenH famBlEdl RtUvkar edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugnwgmantémøtic EdleyIgrkeXIjtamry³karBiesaFn_. famBl GuIy:ugkmμTImYyénebrIlüÚmKWx

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q¶ayBIéNVy:U¦ maDEdlykkEnøgedayeGLicRtugénGrb‘Ítal; 2s énGatUmlIcUm. dUecñH eGLicRtugénGrb‘Ítal; 3s énGatUmsUdüÚmnwgRtUvkarfamBlticCageGLicRtugénGrb‘Ítal; 2s énGatUmlIcUm edIm,IeFVIGuIy:ugkmμ. lkçN³dUcKñaenHKwc,as;las;kñúgcMeNamGatUmGaLÚEsn ebIeTaHbICatémørbs;vax

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eGLicRtugTIBIrEdlCaeGLicRtugénGrb‘Ítal; 1s RtUvkarfamBlFMCagfamBl EdlRtUvkar edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugGrb‘Ítal; 2s db;dg. edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugTIbInigeGLicRtugcugeRkay RtUvkarfamBlrwtEtx

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rUb 2/14 cMNUleGLicRtug kJ.mol-1 sRmab;FatuRkumem

edIm,IBnül;BIcMNUleGLicRtugviC¢many:agexSaysRmab;GatUmebrIlüÚ:m eyIgRtUveFVI karsnμtfaeGLicRtugenAkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 2s karBareGLicRtugEdlRtUv)anbUkbEnßmeTAelI Grb‘Ítal; 2p. dUecñHTMnajeGLicRtug 2p cMeBaHéNVy:UCites μ IsUnü. cMNUleGLicRtugGviC¢man x

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dUecñH karbUkbEnßmeGLicRtugTIBIr KWCadMeNIrkarRsUbkemþA. dMeNIrkarEdlmin KYrCaTIeBjcitþenH minKYr[PJak;ep¥IleTecjBIKMniténkarbUkbEnßmeGLicRtugcMeBaHFatumYy EdlmanbnÞúkGviC¢manrYcCaeRsc b:uEnþbnÞab;mkeyIgRtUvBnül;rebobEdlGuIy:ugGuksuItmanenA kñúgsmasFatuKImI. CakarBit dUcEdleyIg)aneXIjenAemeronTIR)aM GuIy:ugGuksuIt GacmanEt kEnøgEdlmankmøaMgdéTeTot (driving force) dUcCakarkekItbNþajRkam.

Gaj:ugelah³Gal;kaLaMg vamanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarkan;KMnitEdlmanmkmun. Gñkral;Kña “dwg” faelah³Gal;

kaLaMgmanTMenar “cg;” e)aHbg;eGLicRtug ehIybegáItCakacug. b:uEnþvaminEmnCakarBiteT eRBaHvaRtUvkarfamBl 502 kJ.mol-1 edIm,Ipþac;eGLicRtugkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 3s BImYym:UlénGatUm sUdüÚmesrI. eTaHbICay:agNak¾eday dUcEdleyIg)aneXIjkñúgrUb 2/14 famBl 53kJ.mol-1 RtUv)anbeBa©jenAeBlEdleGLicRtug 3s bEnßmRtUv)anbUkeTAelImYym:UlénGatUmsUdüÚm. sUdüÚmBitCacg;[manGrb‘Ítal;eGLicRtug3seBj Cag[Grb‘Ítal;enHenATMenr. ehtuplEdl fa karbMeBjenHminekIteLIgCaTUeTA eRBaHsUdüÚmCaFmμtacgsm

CMBYkTI2

2-27

2/8 KImICIv³énFatuTaMgLay KImICIv³GsrIragÁ CakarsikSaénFatuTaMgLayenAkñúgPav³rs; ehIyCamuxviC¢amYykñúg cMeNamkarsikSaKImIEdlrIkcMerInbMput. tYnaTIénFatuKImITaMgLayenAkñúgRbB½n§CIv³RtUv)an BiPakSaenAkñúgCMBYkénRkumnImYYy² b:uEnþesckþIsegçbénFatuKImIEdlmansar³sMxan;sRmab;CIvit RtUv)anpþl;[enATIenH. FatuRtUv)aneKcat;Tukfamansar³sMxan;enAeBlEdlkarxVHFatuenaH eFVI[mankarcuHexSayénmuxgar ehIykarbEnßmFatuenaHeFVI[sarBagÁkayRtLb;mksPaBl¥ dUcedImvij. FatuKImIcMnYn 14 RtUvkarenAkñúgbrimaNsmRsb ¬rUb2/15¦.

18 1 2 H 13 14 15 16 17 HeLi Be B C N O F NeNa Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl ArK Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br KrRb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I XeCs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At RnFr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No

rUb2/15 FatuEd;lcaM)ac;sRmab;CIvitenAkñúgbrimaNeRcIn ¬BN’exμA¦ nigFatuEdlRtUvkarkñúg brimaNtic ¬Rsemal¦. sar³sMxan;énFatuEdlRtUvkarkñúgbrimaNFMTaMgenHKW manPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarkMNt; b:uEnþvamankarlM)akedIm,IeFVIGtþsBaØaNFatuEdlsarBagÁkayRtUvkarkñúgbrimaNtictYcbMput. BIeRBaHEteyIgRtUvkarvakñúgbrimaNtic vaminGaceTArYceTkñúgkarlubbM)at;vaecjBIrbbGahar TUeTA edIm,IBinitü\T§iBlénPaBGn;exSayNamYy. rhUtmkdl;\LÚvenH FatubEnßm 12 RtUv)an eKGHGagfaBYkvaCacaM)ac; edIm,I[mansuxPaBl¥. vaKYr[PJak;ep¥IlEdlragkayrbs; eyIgRtUvkarelIsBImYyPaKbYnénFatuesßrPaBTaMgenHedIm,IbMeBjmuxgar)anl¥. muxgarBitR)a kdénFatucaM)ac;kñúgbrimaNtictYcbMputenAEtminTan;)aneKdwg. enAeBlEdlbec©keTsKImICIv³ manPaBTMenIbFatubEnßmeTotGacRtUv)anbBa©ÚleTAelIbBa¢IénFatu EdleyIgRtUvkarTaMgenaH.

kgVHmIRkUFatuciBa©wmman\T§iBleTAelIsuxPaBmnusSRbEhlBIrlannak;BaseBjBiPBelakedaypÞal; nigedayeFVI[BYkeKgayTTYlrgCMgW.

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2-28

sRmab;FatucaM)ac;swgEtTaMgGs; vamanbrimaNEdlRtUvhUbcUly:agRbesIrbMput ehIy ebIsinCahUbbrimaNelI b¤eRkamcMnYnenH GacmaneRKaHfñak;. eKalkarN_enHRtUv)aneKsÁal; faCaviFan Bertrand ¬rUb 2/16¦. mnusSCaeRcInmankaryl;dwgeTAelIviFan Bertrand enA kñúgkarTTYlTanCatiEdk. CatiEdkticeBkGacbNþal[manCMgWkgVHQamRkhm b:uEnþkumar k¾søab;pgEdr bnÞab;BI)anTTYlTanRKab;fñaMCatiEdkkñúgbrimaNeRcIneBk. cMnYnénkarTTYlTan d¾RbesIrmanPaBxusKñay:agxøaMgBIFatumYyeTAFatumYy. brimaNeselj:ÚmEdlRbesIrsRmab; TTYlTanKWcenøaH 50 gμ .day-1 eTA 200 gμ .day-1. ebITTYLticCag 10 gμ .day-1 nwgbNþal [manbBaðasuxPaBF¶n;F¶r ehIyGacbNþal[søab;ebIkarTTYlTanelIsBI 1mg.day-1. CasMNagl¥ mnusSPaKeRcIntamry³rbbGaharrbs;eK kMritrMlayeselj:ÚmsßitenAkñúgkMrit RtUvkar.

rUb2/16 karERbRbYlCakareqøIytbeTAnwgbrimaNGaharEdlTTYlTanviFan Bertrand.

KMnitsMxan; • vamanTRmg;CaeRcInéntaragxYb

EdlTRmg;TaMgGs;enaHRtUv)anerobcMtamlMdab;énkarekIneLIg elxGatUm. • nuyekøGugbMeBjRsTab;kñúgéNVy:URsedogeTAnwgRsTab;eGLicRtug. enAeBlEdlRsTab;

nuyekøGug)anbMeBj (magic numbers) vaeFVI[éNVy:UmanesßrPaB. • FatuGacRtUv)aneKeFVIcMENkfñak;Ca]sμ ½n GgÁFaturav nig GgÁFaturwg edayeyageTAelI

pasenAsItuNðPaBbnÞb; b¤GacEckCaelah³ Bak;kNþalelah³ ¬elah³exSay¦ nig Gelah³.

• kaMGatUm ¬kaMkUv:aLg; kaM Van der Waal kaMelah³¦ RtUv)an[niymn½yedaybnÞúk éNVy:URbsiT§enAelIeGLicRtugRsTab;eRkA.

CMBYkTI2

2-29

• TMenarénfamBlGuIy:ugkmμnigcMNUleGLicRtug GacRtUv)anBnül;edayeRbIfamBlén eGLicRtug.

• FatuKImICaeRcIn KWmansar³sMxan;enAkñúgdMeNIrkarKImICIv³. BaküsMxan; Gak;TINUGuIt actinoids 2-5 elah³Gal;kaLaMg alkali metals 2-5 elah³Gal;kalINUETruW alkaline earth metals 2-5 viFan Bertrand Bertrand’s rule 2-28 KImICIv³GsrIragÁ bioinorganic chemistry 2-27 kaMkUv:aLg; rcov covalent radius rcov 2-16 éNVy:UeTVGs©arü doubly magic nuclei 2-10 karhUtCasrés ductile 2-13 plbnÞúkéNVy:U effective nuclear charge, Zeff 2-17 cMNUleGLicRtug electron affinity 2-24 famBlGuIy:ugkm μdMbUg first ionisation energy 2-21 GaLÚEsn halogens 2-5 Lg;taNUGuIt lanthanoids 2-5 PøWrelag luster 2-13 FatuRkumem main group elements 2-5 karEp malleable 2-13 cMnYnm:as mass number 2-6 kaMelah³ metallic radius 2-16 elah³GMpUET metalloids 2-16 nuyekøGug nucleon 2-8 ]s μ ½nkMr rare (or noble) gases 2-5 FatudIkMr rare earth elements 2-5 \T§iBlrWLaTIvIs relativistic effects 2-20

esckþIsegçbéntaragxYb

2-30

famBlGuIy:ugkm μTIBIr second ionisation energy 2-23 GDÆelah³ semimetals 2-16 viFan Slater Slater’s rules 2-19 sItuNðPaBnigsm

CMBYkTI2

2-31

2/10 ehtuGVI)anCaFatuEdlmanm:asF¶n;enAelIEpndIRtUvEtekItBI supernovas BImun Edl )anpÞúH? 2/11 cUrkMNt;

(a) FatuEdlmanelxGatUmx

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2-32

2/22 cUrR)ab;BImUlhtuEdlkaMkUv:aLg;énGab;j:Úm (144pm) KWticCagkaMkUv:aLg;én esokUj:Úm(145pm) EdlCaFatuenABIelIvaenAkñúgtaragxYb. 2/23 enAkñúgtarag2/3 eyIgeXIjtémøénbnÞúkéNVyU:RbsiT§sRmab;FatukñúgxYbTIBIrRtUv )anKNna edayviFIsaRsþy:agRbesIrén Clementi and Raimondi. sRmab;FatunImYy² cUrKNnabnÞúkéNVy:URbsiT§énGrb‘Ítal; 1s, 2s, and 2p edayeyageTAelIviFan Slater. eRbobeFobtémøenHeTAnwgtémø Clementi and Raimondi ehIyBiPakSafaPaBxusKña enHmansar³sMxan; b¤y:agNa. 2/24 edayeRbIR)as; elIviFan Slater cUrKNnaplbnÞúkéNVy:U éneGLicRtugenAkñúg Grb‘Ítal; nImYy²énGatUmb:UtasüÚm. 2/25 edayeRbIR)as;viFan Slater cUrKNnaplbnÞúkéNVy:UéneGLicRtugmYykñúgcMeNam eGLicRtugkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 3d eRbobeFobeTAnwgtémøéneGLicRtugkñúgGrb‘Ítal; 4s sRmab;GatUm m:aejsüÚm. 2/26 edayeRbIR)as;viFan Slater cUrKNnaplbnÞúkéNVy:UéneGLicRtug 3penAkñúg³

(a) GaluymIj:Úm nig (b) kør Bnül;lT§plrbs;GñkTak;Tgy:agdUcemþceTAnwg³

(i) kaMGatUmEdlTak;TgénGatUmTaMgBIr (ii) famBlGuIy:ugkmμTImYyEdlTak;TgénGatUmTaMgBIr

2/27 etIFatumYyNaKYrmanfamBlGuIy:ugkmμx

CMBYkTI2

2-33

2/32 FatumYyNa sUdüÚm b¤m:aejsüÚm EdlKYrmancMNUleGLicRtugEk,rsUnü? R)ab;ehtupl rbs;Gñk. 2/33 etIGñksgÇwmfacMNUleGLicRtugéneGlüÚmmansBaØaviC¢man b¤GviC¢man? Bnül; ehtuplrbs;Gñk. 2/34 etIEpñkNaéntaragxYbEdlmanFatuEdleyIgRtUvkarkñúgbrimaNeRcIn? etIvaTak;Tgy:ag dUcemþceTAnwgPaBsMbUrénFatu? 2/35 edayminBwgEp¥keTAelITinñn½ytarag b¤taragxYb sresrcMnYnm:assRmab;³

(a) GuIsUtUbsamBaØbMputénsMN ¬FatuelxGatUm82¦ (b) GuIsUtUbesßrPaBEtmYyKt;énb‘Ísμ ú‘t ¬FatuelxGatUm83¦ (c) GuIsUtUbEdlmanCIvitEvgbMputénb:ULÚj:Úm ¬FatuelxGatUm84¦

2/36 pÞúyeTAnwgTisedAFm μta famBlGuIy:ugkmμTImYyénsMN (715kJ.mol-1) x

esckþIsegçbéntaragxYb

2-34

2.9 CamYyéNVyU:EdlmanRbUtugcab;BI 26 karbMEbknuyekøEG‘CaRbtikmμbeBa©jkemþA ehIy manTMenarCag. elIsBIenH karbMEbkKWRsUbkemþA ehIyRtUvkarfamBlBIkarpÞúH supernova edIm,IekIteLIg.

2.13 sUdüÚm eRBaHvamancMnYnRbUtugess¬edayEp¥kelItaragGIusUtUbsUdüÚmmanGIusUtUbesßrPaB mYyEdlmancMnYnNWRtug 12 CacMnYnKU Edlma:ejsüÚm manGIusUtUbesßrPaBcMnYnbI¦.

2.17 (a) Gelah³CaeRcIndUcCaGIuyU:d nigsmasFatumYycMnYndUcCa FeS2, masrbs;GñkPøIePøI, EdlmanépÞPøWrelag. (b) eBRCCavisRmUbkabUn¬Gelah³¦EdlmankMritcmøgkemþAx