17 -1 Tactical Decision Making 战术决策 ( 短期决策 ) CHAPTER6.

17 -1

Tactical Tactical Decision Decision MakingMaking

战术决策战术决策

(( 短期决策短期决策 ))

CHAPTERCHAPTER

66

17 -2

1. Describe the tactical decision-making model.2. Explain how the activity resource usage model

is used in assessing relevancy.3. Apply tactical decision-making concepts in a

variety of business situations.4. Choose the optimal product mix when faced

with one constrained resource.5. Explain the impact of cost of pricing decisions.6*.Use linear programming to find the optimal

solution to a problem of multiple constrained resources. (Appendix)

ObjectivesObjectivesObjectivesObjectives

17 -3

一、 Model for Making Tactical DecisionsStep 1. Recognize and define the problem.

ContinuedContinuedContinuedContinued

Increase capacity for warehousing and production.Step 2. Identify alternatives as possible solutions to

the problem; eliminate alternatives that are clearly not feasible.

1. Build new facility2. Lease larger facility; sublease current facility3. Lease additional facility4. Lease warehouse space5. Buy shafts and brushings; free up needed space

17 -4

Model for Making Tactical Decisions

Lease warehouse space:

Variable production costs$345,000

Warehouse lease135,000

Buy shafts and bushings externally:

Purchase price$460,000

Step 3. Identify the costs and benefits associated with each feasible alternative. Classify costs and benefits as relevant or irrelevant, and eliminate irrelevant ones from consideration.


17 -5

Model for Making Tactical DecisionsStep 4. Total the relevant costs and benefits for each

alternative.


Lease warehouse space:

Variable production costs$345,000

Warehouse lease 135,000

Total$480,000

Buy shafts and bushings externally:

Purchase price$460,000

Differential cost $ 20,000

17 -6

Model for Making Tactical DecisionsStep 5. Assess qualitative (non-cost) factors.

1. Quality of external suppliers

2. Reliability of external suppliers

3. Price stability

4. Labor relations and community image

Step 6. Make the decision.

Quality of shafts 轴 and brushing 电刷 is significantly lower

Not reliable

Continue to produce shafts and bushings internally; lease warehouse

17 -7

Relevant Costs Relevant Costs 相关成本相关成本Relevant Costs Relevant Costs 相关成本相关成本

Relevant costs are future( 未来 ) costs that differ across alternatives. A cost

must not only be a future cost but most also differ between alternatives.

Relevant costs are future( 未来 ) costs that differ across alternatives. A cost

must not only be a future cost but most also differ between alternatives.

二、二、 Activity Resource UsageActivity Resource Usage 耗用耗用 ModelModel模型模型 and Assessingand Assessing 评价评价 RelevancyRelevancy 相关性相关性二、二、 Activity Resource UsageActivity Resource Usage 耗用耗用 ModelModel

模型模型 and Assessingand Assessing 评价评价 RelevancyRelevancy 相关性相关性

17 -8

Flexible 灵活 resources can be easily purchased in the

amount needed and at the time of use… like electricity( 电

力 ).

Flexible 灵活 resources can be easily purchased in the

amount needed and at the time of use… like electricity( 电

力 ).

17 -9

Committed resources( 已承诺资源 ) are purchased before

they are used, such as salaried employees.

Committed resources( 已承诺资源 ) are purchased before

they are used, such as salaried employees.

17 -10

a. Demand Changes Relevant

Flexible ResourcesFlexible Resources

b. Demand Constant Not Relevant

Activity Resource Usage Model and Activity Resource Usage Model and Assessing Relevancy Assessing Relevancy


17 -11



Committed Resources(Short-Term)

Committed Resources(Short-Term)

Supply – Demand = Unused Capacity

a.. Demand Increased < Unused Capacity 闲置 Not relevantb. Demand Increased > Unused Capacity Relevant

c. Demand Decease (Permanent)1. Activity Capacity Reduced Relevant

2. Activity Capacity Unchanged Not Relevant

17 -12

* 短期经营决策的有关概念相关收入——与特定方案相联系，在短期经营中予以考虑的方案相关成本——与特定方案相联系，能对特定决策产生影响成本

相关成本

增量成本——某方案的单位变动成本与相关业务量乘积机会成本——在经济决策中应由中选的最优方案负担的按所放弃次优方案潜在收益计算的那部分资源损失专属成本——归属某特定方案的固定成本或混合成本加工成本

可分成本

可避免成本

可延缓成本

17 -13

无关成本

无关成本

沉没成本——沉入成本或旁置是指由于过去决策结果而引并已经实际支付款项的成本

共同成本——应当由多个方案共同负担的注定要发生的固定成本或混合成本

联合成本

不可避免成本

不可延缓成本

17 -14

Important: Short-term PerspectiveImportant: Short-term Perspective 短期视野短期视野 >>Important: Short-term PerspectiveImportant: Short-term Perspective 短期视野短期视野 >>

三、 Illustrative Examples ( 举例 )

of Relevant Cost Applications( 应用 )

Tactical Decision 归纳为以下几种情况：

1. Make or Buy 自制与外购

2. Keep or Drop 取舍

3. Special Order 特殊订单

4. Sell or Process Further 销售或进一步加工

5. Product Mix 产品组合

17 -15 Tactical Decision

归纳为以下几种方法

战术的方

法

单位资源贡献边际法

贡献边际总额分析法

差别损益分析法

相关损益分析法

相关成本分析法

成本差别

1 单位资源贡献边际＝单位贡献边际／单位产品资源消耗定额　——哪个指标大，哪个指标优

2 相关收入不为零、相关成本全部为变动成本、不涉及已承诺成本

3 两个相关排斥方案差别损益取舍

4 适用多方案差别损益分析

5 相关收入为零，哪个方案相关成最低、哪个方案最优

6 两方案相关固定成本 (FC) 与单位变动成本 (@VC) 相矛盾，成本无差别点业务量＝两方案相关固定成本之差／两方案单位变动成本之差　　x0=(a1-a2)/(b2-b1)

17 -16 以 Cost Indifference Point 解决新产品决策 Background: ABC Co. decisides to produce Component A ， with either Option B or C. In Option B, the fixed cost is to be $240000 ， and the variable cost per unit is $80. In Option C, the relevant fixed cost is $16000 ， variable cost per unit is $120Solution:Suppose alternative B’s FC=a1 ， @FC=b1 ；Option C’s FC=a2 ， VC per unit= b2

since ， a1=240000>a2=160000; b1=80<b2=120 , which means they conflict each other to some extent. So we may apply the “Cost Indifference Point” method. CIP = (a1-a2)/(b1-b2) = (240000-160000) ÷(120-80) =2000 unitsTherefore ： when the output of A is less then 2000units ， Option C is preferrable ； when A’s requirement is larger than 2000 units ， Option B is a good choice.

17 -17



Committed Resources(Multi-period Capacity)

Committed Resources(Multi-period Capacity)

Supply – Demand = Unused Capacity

a.. Demand Increased < Unused Capacity Not relevant

b. Demand Decreased (Permanent) Relevant

c. Demand Increase > Unused Capacity Capital Decision

17 -18

1. Make or Buy1. Make or Buy

某公司 Swasey Manufacturing currently produces an electronic component used in one of its printers. Swasey must produce 10,000 of these parts. The firm has been approached 接触 by a supplier who offers to build(=make) the component to Swasey’s specifications for $4.75 per unit.

17 -19

1. Make or Buy1. Make or Buy

Total Cost Unit CostRental of equipment $12,000 $1.20Equipment depreciation 2,000 0.20Direct materials 10,000 1.00Direct labor 20,000 2.00Variable overhead 8,000 0.80General fixed overhead 30,000 3.00 Total $82,000 $8.20

The full absorption cost for the 10,000 parts is computed as follows:

Enough material is on hand to make 5,000 parts.

17 -20

1. Make or Buy 自制与外购1. Make or Buy 自制与外购

Alternatives Differential Make Buy Cost to Make

Rental of equipment $12,000 ------- $12,000Direct materials 5,000 ------- 5,000Direct labor 20,000 ------- 20,000Variable overhead 8,000 ------- 8,000Purchase cost 采购成本 ------- $47,500 -47,500Receiving Dept 收货 labor ------- 8,500 - 8,500 Total $45,000 $56,000 $-11,000

The cost to make or buy 5,000 units follows:

MakeMake

17 -21

某公司 Norton Materials, Inc. produces concrete blocks 水泥预制板 , bricks 砖 , and roofing tile 瓦片 . The income statement is prepared:

2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions 取舍取舍2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions 取舍取舍

Blocks Bricks Tile TotalSales revenue $500 $800 $150 $1,450 Less: Variable exp. 可变 250 480 140 870Contribution margin $250 $320 $ 10 $ 580 Less: direct fixed expenses 直接固定费用 :

Advertising 广告 $ 10 $ 10 $ 10$ 30 Salaries 工资 37 40 35 112 Depreciation 折旧 53 40 10 103 Total $100 $ 90 $ 55 $ 245

Segment margin 各部边际贡献$150 $230 $(45) $ 335Less: Common fixed exp. 公共固定费用 125

Operating income 营业利润 : $ 210

17 -22

Differential Keep Drop Amount to KeepSales $150 ---- $150

Less: Variable expenses 140 ---- 140Contribution margin $ 10 ---- $ 10Less: Advertising -10 ---- -10 Cost of supervision -35 ---- -35Total relevant benefit (loss) $- 35 $ 0 $- 35

PreliminaryPreliminary 初步初步 figures indicatefigures indicate 显示显示 : : that the tile segment should be dropped!that the tile segment should be dropped!

PreliminaryPreliminary 初步初步 figures indicatefigures indicate 显示显示 : : that the tile segment should be dropped!that the tile segment should be dropped!

17 -23

2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions2. Keep-or-Drop DecisionsBut they determine that dropping the tile section will reduce 8 to10% of sales in all sections as follows: $50,000 for blocks, $64,000 for bricks, and $150,000 for roofing tile. The summary in thousands is shown below:

Sales $1,450 $1,186.0 $264.0Less: Variable expenses 870 666.6 203.4Contribution margin $ 580 $ 519.4 $ 60.6Less: Advertising -30 -20.0 -10.0 Cost of supervision -112 -77.0 -35.0Total $ 438 $ 422.4 $ 15.6

Differential Keep Drop Amount to Keep

∴ ∴ 决策是决策是 Keep roofing tile segment!Keep roofing tile segment!∴ ∴ 决策是决策是 Keep roofing tile segment!Keep roofing tile segment!

17 -24

2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions(( 变一变一下下 ))

2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions(( 变一变一下下 ))Further more, if dropping the tile section will only reduce a

half of the losses of sales in all sections, i.e.: $25,000 for blocks, $32,000 for bricks, and $150,000 for roofing tile. The summary in thousands will be shown as follows:

∴ ∴ 决策变成决策变成 :: Drop the roofing tile Drop the roofing tile segment!segment!

∴ ∴ 决策变成决策变成 :: Drop the roofing tile Drop the roofing tile segment!segment!

Differential Keep Drop Amount to Keep

Sales $1,450 $1,243.00 $264.00Less: Variable expenses 870 698.3 203.4Contribution margin $580 $544.70 $35.30Less: Advertising -30 -20 -10 Cost of supervision -112 -77 -35Total $438 $448 ($10)

$1,450 – $150 $1,450 – $150 –$25 – $32 –$25 – $32 $870 – $140 – $870 – $140 –

$12.5 – $19.20$12.5 – $19.20

17 -25

2. Keep-or-Drop 2. Keep-or-Drop Decisions(Decisions( 续续 ))


The marketing manager sees the market for floor tile as stronger and less competitive than roof tile. He submits the following figures for floor tile sales: ( 见 p.530)

情形 2:Alternate Use of Facilities 设备的其他用途的情况情形 2:Alternate Use of Facilities 设备的其他用途的情况

Sales $100,000Less: Variable expenses 40,000Contribution margin $ 60,000Less: Direct fixed expenses 55,000 Segment margin $ 5,000

17 -26

Drop and Differential Keep Replace Amount to KeepSales $1,450 $1,286.00 $164.00

Less: Variable expenses 870 706.60 163.40

Contribution margin $ 580 $ 579.40 $ 0.60$1,450 – $150 $1,450 – $150 –$50 – $64 + –$50 – $64 +

$100$100$870 – $140 – $870 – $140 – $25 – $38.40 + $25 – $38.40 +

$40$40

∴ ∴ Decision: ContinueDecision: Continue 继续继续 making roof tile!making roof tile! ∴ ∴ Decision: ContinueDecision: Continue 继续继续 making roof tile!making roof tile!



情形 2:Alternate Use of Facilities 设备的其他用途的情况 ( 续 )

情形 2:Alternate Use of Facilities 设备的其他用途的情况 ( 续 )

17 -27

3. Special-Order Decisions3. Special-Order Decisions3. Special-Order Decisions3. Special-Order Decisions

An ice cream company is operating at 80% of its productive capacity (20,000,000 half-gallon units). The unit costs associated with producing and selling 16 million units are shown on the next slide.

17 -28

3. Special-Order Decisions3. Special-Order Decisions3. Special-Order Decisions3. Special-Order Decisions

Variable costs:Dairy ingredients

$ 0.70Sugar

0.10Flavoring

0.15Direct labor

0.25Packaging

0.20Commissions

0.02Distribution 分销

0.03Other

0.05 Total variable costs

$ 1.50

Wholesale Wholesale price = price = $2.00$2.00

Total fixed costs 0.097 Total costs $1.597

17 -29

Special-Order DecisionsSpecial-Order DecisionsSpecial-Order DecisionsSpecial-Order Decisions

An ice cream distributor from a geographic region not normally

served by the company has offered to buy two million units at $1.55 per unit, provided its own label can be

attached to the product. The distributor has agreed to pay the

transportation cost.

17 -30

Special-Order DecisionsSpecial-Order DecisionsSpecial-Order DecisionsSpecial-Order Decisions

Variable costs:Dairy ingredients

$ 0.70Sugar

0.10Flavoring

0.15Direct labor

0.25Packaging

0.20Commissions

0.02Distribution

0.03Other

0.05 Total variable costs

$ 1.50

Total fixed costs 0.097 Total cost $1.597

Which costs are irrelevant?

$1.45$1.45

$1.45$1.45

Accept the offer ($0.10 x 2,000,000 =

$200,000 more profit).

Accept the offer ($0.10 x 2,000,000 =

$200,000 more profit).

17 -31

4. Sell or Further ProcessYield at Split-Off

Grade AGrade A800 lb800 lbSell for $0.40/lbSell for $0.40/lb

Grade BGrade B600 lb600 lb

Grade CGrade C600 lb600 lb

Joint Cost $300

BaggedBagged120 Bags120 BagsCost $0.05/BagCost $0.05/BagSell for $1.30/BagSell for $1.30/Bag

ApplesauceApplesauce500 16-oz Cans500 16-oz CansCost $0.10/lbCost $0.10/lbSell for $0.75/canSell for $0.75/can

Further Processing

17 -32

4. Sell or Further Process

Process Differential Amount Further Sell to Process Further

Revenues $450 $150 $300Processing cost 120 ---- 120Total $330 $150 $180

结论 : Further process!结论 : Further process!

17 -33 四、四、 Product Mix DecisionsProduct Mix Decisions产品组合决策产品组合决策

四、四、 Product Mix DecisionsProduct Mix Decisions产品组合决策产品组合决策

Example: Product X & Y, unit C.M.: $25, $10

1. One constrained Resource: e.g. limited machine-hour

2. Multiple constrained Resources:limitations;

3. Liner programming 线性规划

17 -34

p540p540 附录附录 :Linear Programming:Linear Programmingp540p540 附录附录 :Linear Programming:Linear Programming

The maximum demand for Gear X is 15,000 units and the maximum demand for Gear Y is 40,000 units. The

contribution margin for X is $25 and for Y is $10.

TCM = $25X + $10Y

Two machine hours are used for each unit of Gear X, and 0.5 machine hour is used for a unit of Gear Y.

2X + 0.5Y 40,000

17 -35

Linear ProgrammingLinear ProgrammingLinear ProgrammingLinear Programming

Max. Z = $25X +$10Y

2X + 0.5Y 40,000 0 X 15,000 0 Y 40,000

Subject to:

17 -36

80 –75 –70 –65 –60 –55 –50 –45 –40 –35 –30 –25 –20 –15 –10 –5 –0 – 5 10 15 20 25 | | | | |

Machine Hours Constraint 2X + 0.5Y 40,000

Demand Constraint X 15,000

Demand Constraint Y 40,000

Feasibility Feasibility AreaArea

可行区域可行区域A B

C

DE

17 -37

Linear ProgrammingLinear ProgrammingLinear ProgrammingLinear Programming

Corner Point X-Value Y-Value Z = $25X + $10Y

A 0 0 $ 0B 15 0 375C 15 20 575D 10 40 650E 0 40 400

Manufacture 10,000 units of Gear X and 40,000 of Gear Y.

17 -38 五、 Two Approaches to Pricing

1. Cost-Based Pricing

2. Target Costing and Pricing

17 -39 定价决策一、定价决策分析的范围及应当考虑因素

垄断价格：完全自由竞争价格和企业可控制价格定价时可考虑商品价性，成本的消耗水平，商品质量供求关系与竞争形，价格的弹性、所处周期等

二、以成本为导向 (cost-based)的定价方法１、总成本定价法：价格＝（预计总成本＋目标利润）／预计

产销数量２、收益比率定价：　　完全成本法：价格＝单位产品成本／（１－销售毛利率）　　变动成本法：价格＝单位变动成本／（１－贡献边际率）３、成本加成 (markup) 定价法　　价格＝单位产品成本＋加成额

三、以需求导向的定价方法边际收入＝边际成本、边际利润＝０

17 -40

Revenues $856,500

Cost of goods sold:

Direct materials $489,750

Direct labor 140,000

Overhead 84,000 713,750

Gross profit $142,750

Selling and administrative expenses 25,000

Operating income $117,750

1. Cost-Based Pricing

17 -41

Markup on COGS =

(S & A expenses + Operating income) ÷ COGS

= ($25,000 + $117,750) ÷ $713,750

= 0.20

Determining Markup 加成 Percentages

Markup on direct materials =

(DL + OH + S & A expenses + Oper. income) ÷ Direct mater. =

($140,000 + $84,000 + $25,000 + $117,750) ÷$489,750 = 0.749

17 -42

Determining Markup Percentages

Direct materials (computer components, etc.) $100,000Direct labor (100 x 6 hours x $15) 9,000Overhead (60 percent of direct labor cost) 5,400Estimated cost of goods sold $114,400Plus 20 percent markup of COGS 22,880 Bid price $137,280

17 -43

2. Target Costing and Pricing

Target costing is a method of determining the cost of a product or service based on the price (target price 目标价格 ) that customers are willing( 愿意 ) to pay.

This is referred to as price-driven costing.

17 -44

Legal Aspects of PricingLegal Aspects of Pricing

Predatory pricing 掠夺性定价法 . The practice of setting prices below cost for the purpose of injuring or eliminating competitors.

Price discrimination 价格歧视 . Charging different prices to different customers for essentially the same product.

The Robinson-Patman Act( 法律 ) is the most potent weapon against price discrimination, but it doesn’t

cover services and intangibles.

The Robinson-Patman Act( 法律 ) is the most potent weapon against price discrimination, but it doesn’t

cover services and intangibles.

17 -45

The EndThe EndThe EndThe End

Chapter SeventeenChapter Seventeen

17 -1 Tactical Decision Making 战术决策 ( 短期决策 ) CHAPTER6.

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