169 - lib.ui.ac.idlib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital/136150-T 24628 Perencanaan strategi... · UNJ....
Transcript of 169 - lib.ui.ac.idlib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital/136150-T 24628 Perencanaan strategi... · UNJ....
169
Universitas Indonesia
DAFTAR REFERENSI
Akao Y (1990). Hoshin Kanri: Policy Deployment for Successful TQM, Productivity
Pers US.
Amin W Tunggal, W., (1993). Manajemen Mutu Terpadu, Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
A.Z, Valariea, A. Parasuraman & Leonard L.B (1990). Delivering Quality Service,
London: The Free press.
BAN-PT (2007) Naskah Akademik Akreditasi Institusi Perguruan Tinggi 2007.
Bechtell M.L. (1995) The Management Compass: Steering The Corporation Using
Hoshin Planning, New York: AMA Membership Publication Devision American
Management Association.
Buku Pedoman Akademik Universitas Negeri Jakarta (2008). Universitas Negeri
Jakarta.
Cohen. (1995). QFD: How to Make QFD Work For You. Addison Wesley.
Cohenu, Lou, (1996). QFD How to make your QFD work for you. NY: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company.
Fred R. David. (2007). Strategic Management Conceps and Cases Eleven Edition.
New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall
Gaspersz, Vincent, (2001). Metode Untuk Peningkatan Kualitas, Jakarta: Gramedia
Pustaka Utama.
Glenn D. Israel (1992) Determining Sampling Size Fact Sheet PEOD-6. Florida:
University of Florida)
Gronross C, (2001). Service Management and Marketing. England: John Wiley&Son
G. Thomas Cumming & Christopher G. Worley. (2005).Organization Deplopment and
Change, Eighth Edition.
James, F.A & F.Mona J, (2006). Service Management; Operation, strategy,
information technology. USA: Mc Graw Hill.
J.B, Revelle, Moran JW & Cox C.A (1998). The QFD handbook. Canada:John
Wiley&Sons Inc.
L. Thomas Jackson. (2006). Hoshin Kanri For The LeanDeveloping Competitive
Capabilities Managing Profit Enterprise. New York: Productivity Press
169 Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
170
Universitas Indonesia
Pekdemir, Isil, C. Cuneyt Arslantas et. all A Study on Hoshin Kanri Planning Sistem
Syastem Aplications in Companies That Have Received ISO 9001-9002 Certification
From The Turkish Standards Institution, Istanbul University, School of Business
Administration.
Richard B. Chase, F. Robert Jacobs & Nicholas J. Aquilano, (2004). Operation
Management For Competitive Advantage Tenth Edition. New York: Mc Graw Hill
Roberts; Paul, & Charles Tennant, Application of the Hoshin Kanri methodology at a
higher education establishment in UK
Sekaran, Uma (1992) Research methods for business, (New York: Jhon Wiley and Son
Inc).
Soin & Sarv Sigh (1993). Total Quality Control Essentials: Key Elements
Metodologies and Managing for Succses. Singapore: Mc Graw Hill.
Tim Kemahasiswaan. (2006). Strategi Pengembangan Kemahasiswaan Universitas
Negeri Jakarta. Jakarta: UNJ
Tim Pengembang UNJ, (2007). Portofolio Akreditasi Institusi Universitas Negeri
Jakarta. Jakarta: UNJ
Tjiptono, F & Diana,A, (2000), Total Quality Management. Yogyakarta: Andi
Penerbit Andi Yogyakarta, Edisi Revisi.
Witcher, Barry & Rosemary Butterworth. (1999). What is Hoshin Kanri (a review).
East Anglia: School of Management University of East Anglia.
Zairi, Mohamad, (2006). Handbook of Bussines “ Hoshin planning: strategy of
adifferent kinds, Emerald.
Jurnal
Ashok Kumar, Jiju Antony dan Tej S. Dhakar, Integrating Quality Fuctional
Deployment and Bechmarking to Actieve Greater Profitability, Bechmarking: An
International Journal Vol.13 No. 3, 2006
Gonzalez M.E, Costumer Satisfaction using QFD: an e-Banking Case”, Managing
Service Quality, Vol. 14 No.4
Hwarang, HB., C Teo., Translating Costumers Voices into Operations Requirement: a
QFD application in hinger Education. International Journal of Quality & Reability
Management Vol.1 No.20
Shie-ming Chou, Evaluating the Service Quality of Undergraduate Nursing Education
in Taiwan-Using Quality Fuction Deployment, Journal Nurse Education Today: 2004
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
Perencanaan Strategi Peningkatan Kualitas Layanan Perguruan Tinggi
Mengintegrasikan QFD dengan Hoshin Kanri (Studi Kasus: Jurusan Teknik Mesin
Fakultas Teknik Universitas Negeri Jakarta)
T. Yuri M. Zagloel, Bertianis, Lukman Arhami
Departemen Teknik Industri Fakultas Teknik Universitas Indonesia
Kampus baru UI, Depok-16424, Indonesia
Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
ABSTRAKS
Jurusan Teknik Mesin memberikan layanan jasa dengan mengemban misi tri dharma perguruan tinggi. Jasa yang diberikan
oleh perguruan tinggi adalah: jasa kulikuler, jasa ekstrakulikuler, jasa administrasi, jasa pengabdian masyarakat, jasa kebijakan
umum, jasa penelitian. Jasa-jasa tersebut merupakan atribut yang akan menjadi pengukuran terhadap kualitas layanan JTM FT
UNJ. Penelitian bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi keinginan dan kebutuhan konsumen, kualitas pelayanan JTM FT UNJ
menurut persepsi pelanggan; mengidentifikasi isu-isu strategis dan membuat usulan strategi peningkatan kualitas layanan
dengan mengintegrasikan Metode QFD dengan Hoshin-Kanri. Metodologi yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah
survey, yang meliputi: pemberian angket, wawancara dan focus group. Adapun hasil dari penelitian ini adalah: (1) Harapan terhadap terhadap layanan di JTM FT UNJ adalah kualitas SDM yang menunjang (dosen dan karyawan) sehingga mampu
memberikan layanan pendidikan dan administrasi yang baik: 14,28%; Pembelajaran berlangsung dengan interaktif didukung
dengan kurikulum yang sesuai dengan perkembangan IPTEKs dan tuntututan kerja: 26,19 %; Efektifitas pengelolaan dan
keramahan dalam melayani mahasiswa: 9,52%; Lulus dengan tepat waktu dengan kualitas penelitian yang baik: 9,52%;
Ketersediaan sarana dan prasarana perkuliahan:35,72%; Pencitraan publik dengan memanfaatkan/membuat media
informasi:4,77%; (2) Kinerja JTM FT UNJ dalam memberikan pelayanan pendidikan dinilai kurang memuaskan. Hal ini dapat
terlihat dari tingginya gap antara ekspektasi dan persepsi terhadap kualitas layanan. Gap terbesar adalah 4 sebanyak 2,08%,
gap 3 sebanyak 41,67% dan (3) Relevansi dan daya saing dapat memenuhi kebutuhan pelanggan sebesar 33,687%. Penguatan
tatakelola dan akuntabilitas 28,291%. Pencitraan publik memiliki konstribusi dalam memenuhi kebutuhan pelanggan adalah
16,435% dan pengembangan sumber daya manusia memiliki porsi sebesar 21,832%.. (4) Proses perencanaan strategi
mengintegrasikan QFD dengan Hoshin Kanri dibuat usulan strategi dan penyebarannya samapi level 2 dalam struktur organisasi Jurusan Teknik Mesin. Usulan tersebut terdiri dari 13 strategi pada level pertama dan 57 strategi pada level kedua.
Kata Kunci: Integrasi, QFD, Hoshin Kanri, Kualitas Layanan
ABSTRACT
Mechanical Engineering Departement extend service heve three duty higher education. Higher education extend six services, are: academic, supporting academic, administration, research, dedication of society, general policy. Services make up
attribute being the measuring services quality in mechanical engineering departement The focus of this study is to recognize
the needs and requirements of customers, to dicover the level of services quality in Mechanical Engineering Departement
based on customers views, to identify the strategies issues the services quality based on the needs and requirements of
customers, to develop the planning strategic for improvement the quality services by integrated QFD and Hoshin Kanri. The
methodology research is survey, include: questionnaire, interview and focus group . The results of this research are: (1)
Costumers’ expectation are: human resources (lecturer and employer) so it present good quality in education and
administration: 14,28%, the interactive learning process supported by appropiate curriculum and scientific development:
26,19%; the efectivity and friendly management to support students: 9,52%, finish study at the certain time and better quality
in research: 9,52%; the preparation of equipments for learning process: 35, 72%; public image through formulate information
media: 4,77%; (2) Quality services in Mechanical Engineering Departement in provide educational process is low satisfied. It
is because the high discrepancy between expectetion and perception to quality services. The most discrepancy are: 1 item (2,08%) in criterion number K6, discrepancy 3 include 20 items (41, 67%) and (3) The significance and competitiveness
accomplish the costumer needs: 33, 687%. The supported of management and accountability: 28, 29%. The contribution of
public image in services the costumers is 16,435% and empowering the human resources is 21,832%. (4) Planning process of
strategy by integrated QFD and Hoshin Kanri is construct the proposal of strategy and the dissemination until second level in
organization structure of Mechanical Engineering Departement. The proposal include 13 of strategies in fisrt level and 57 of
strategies in second level.
Key Word: Integration, QFD, Hoshin Kanri, Service Quality
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
I. Pendahuluan Jurusan Teknik Mesin Fakultas Teknik
Universitas Negeri Jakarta (JTM FT UNJ) memberikan layanan jasa dengan mengemban
misi tri dharma perguruan tinggi. Jasa yang
diberikan oleh perguruan tinggi adalah: jasa akademik, jasa ekstrakulikuler, jasa administrasi,
jasa pengabdian masyarakat, jasa kebijakan umum,
jasa penelitian. Jasa-jasa tersebut merupakan
atribut yang akan menjadi pengukuran terhadap kualitas layanan JTM FT UNJ. Untuk itu perlu
dilakukan identifikasi dan pendefinisian apa yang
menjadi atribut-atribut pelayanan perlu diperhatikan berdasarkan keinginan konsumen
(customer requirements). Dengan mengetahui
performa kualitas atribut-atribut tersebut, dapat
diketahui apa yang harus ditingkatkan kualitasnya, kemudian dapat disusun langkah-langkah
perbaikan untuk peningkatan kualitas atribut-
atribut tersebut. Agar pengembangan layanan yang berdasarkan suara konsumen dapat direalisasikan
dan terarah maka diperlukan sebuah policy
deployment. Hoshin Kanri merupakan merupakan salah satu metode policy deployment dengan
pendekatan sistem manajemen yang mampu
beradaptasi terhadap perubahan lingkungan yang
dinamis. Metode interasi QFD dengan Hoshin Kanri ini memfokuskan bagaimana strategi dibuat
(strategi peningkatan layanan) dengan
mengindentifikasi VOC yang digunakan sebagai input utama dalam penyusunan House of Quality
(HOQ) kemudian akan dilanjutkan dengan
menyebarkan dan mengkomunikasikan strategi yang telah dirancang tadi keseluruh bagian
organisasi dengan metode Hoshin Kanri. Integrasi
tersebut digunakan untuk melakukan Quality
Strategy Deployment (QSD) yang bermuatan atribut kualitas pelayanan. Pendekatan
memberikan kesempatan bagi setiap individu
secara langsung untuk memberikan konstribusi dalam pencapaian tujuan organisasi dan
memperbaiki secara berkesinambungan melalui
proses plan, do, ceck dan act (PDCA). Tujuan
penelitian ini adalah: (1) mengetahui tingkat pelayanan JTM FT UNJ menurut persepsi
pelanggan.; (2) mengidentifikasi isu-isu strategis
tentang kualitas pelayanan JTM FT UNJ berdasarkan keinginan dan kebutuhan konsumen;
(3) membuat usulan strategi peningkatan kualitas
layanan dengan mengintegrasikan Metode QFD dengan Hoshin-Kanri
II. Kajian Teori
2.1 Kualitas Jasa Jasa merupakan suatu produk yang
intangible dapat memberikan nilai lebih (added
value) untuk memenuhi kebutuhan/keinginan
konsumen. Jasa ada bersamaan dengan permintaan
konsumen, oleh karena itu pengadaan jasa tidak
dapat disimpan dan jika tidak digunakan konsumen berlalu begitu saja. Karena dalam penilaian
kualitas jasa sangat subyektif, hal ini yang
menyebabkan output jasa tidak seragam tergantung oleh siapa, kapan dan di mana jasa itu dihasilkan.
Kualitas jasa adalah fakta-fakta servis yang
diterima dan dirasakan oleh konsumen. Dapat
dikatakan kualitas jasa merupakan gap antara ekspektasi terhadap persepsi konsumen. Menurut
Menurut D.P Tampubolon, 1995 jasa peguruan
tinggi meliputi: (1) jasa krikulum; (2) jasa penelitian; (3) jasa pengabdian kepada masyarakat;
(4) jasa ekstra kulikuler; (5) jasa administrasi dan
(6) jasa kebijakan umum. Sementara itu agar
pelaksanaan jasa perguruan tinggi dapat terlaksana, maka haruslah ada beberapa hal yang menunjang,
antara lain: (1) sumber daya manusia; (2) material;
(3) peralatan; (4) lingkungan dan (5) prosedur
2.2 Jurusan Teknik Mesin FT UNJ
Jurusan Teknik Mesin mempunyai tugas
dan peranan sebagai unsur pelaksanaan pada Fakultas Teknik yang mengelola bidang
pendidikan, pengajaran, dan penelitian, serta
pengabdian pada masyarakat dalam bidang Teknik
Mesin. Jurusan Teknik Mesin memiliki 2 (dua) program studi yaitu: (a) Program Studi Pendidikan
Teknik Mesin dengan kekhususan Mesin Produksi
dan Mesin Otomotif yang dirancang untuk tingkat sarjana (S1); dan (b) Program Studi Teknik Mesin
(DIII). Visi Jurusan Teknik Mesin adalah
Mengantisipasi tantangan dan peluang di era globalisasi melalui peningkatan pelayanan dalam
penyelenggaraan pendidikan dan pengajaran,
penelitian, dan pengabdian pada masyarkat untuk
menghasilkan Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM) yang memiliki keunggulan akademis profesional dalam
bidang teknik mesin, tanggap terhadap perubahan
yang cepat di bidang ilmu pengetahuan teknologi dan seni (Ipteks), mampu mengakses informasi
baru dengan cepat, mampu berfikir kritis dan
analitis, dapat bekerja sama dengan teman
seprofesi, berjiwa wiraswasta, dan memiliki kemampuan bersaing.
2.3 BAN PT
BAN PT memiliki 15 standar akreditasi, yaitu: (1) Kepemimpinan, (2) Kemahasiswaan, (3)
Sumber daya manusia, (4) Kurikulum, (5)
Prasarana dan Sarana, (6) Pendanaan, (7) Tata pamong (governance), (8) Sistem pengelolaan, (9)
Sistem pembelajaran, (10) Suasana akademik, (11)
Sistem informasi, (12) Sistem jaminan mutu
internal, (13) Lulusan, (14) Penelitian dan
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
pengabdian kepada masyarakat dan (15) Program
studi.
2.4 Perencanaan Strategi Perencanaan yang baik tentunya merupakan
satu kesatuan yang terintegrasi antara definisi
strategi, visi dan tujuan yang memiliki 5 kriteria antara lain: (1) sistem perencanaan strategi
haruslah dapat memformulasikan pilihan strategi
yang akan diambil; (2) perencanaan yang dibuat
harus bisa dipahami oleh semua level, (3)
perencanaan yang dibuat harus konsisten dalam
bentuk, metode, deadlines sehingga kekacauan dalam melakukan evaluasi dan konsulidasi dapat
diminimalkan; (4) perencanaan yang dibuat harus
terintegrasi atau ada kesesuaian dengan sistem
manajemen yang berlaku; (5) pemimpin dalam sebuah organisasi haruslah menjadi teladan dalam
pelaksanaan sistem perencanaan yang dibuat dan
mempunyai komitmen yang kuat dalam pelaksanaannya.
2.5 Quality Fuction Deployment (QFD)
Gonzales berpendapat QFD adalah proses
tersistematis menggunakan cross fuctional teams mengindentifikasi dan resolve isu-isu termasuk
dalam providing produk, proses, servis dan strategi
meningkatkan kepuasan konsumen. QFD berarti mengembangkan atribut-atribut produk atau servis
berdasarkan pada keinginan konsumen keseluruhan
fuctional komponen yang tepat sebuah organisasi. QFD merupakan salah satu metode untuk
pengembangan produk atau jasa berdasarkan
tingkat kepuasan konsumen dari pengguna
barang/jasa. QFD adalah sebuah proses interdisciplinary team dalam merencanakan disain
atau improve dan proses: (1) fokus pada kebutuhan
konsumen; (2) faktor lingkungan kompetitif dan market/konsumen menjadi pertimbangan
keputusan; (3) inter-fuctional team work; (4)
permintaan konsumen di translated sehingga menjadi tujuan yang terukur untuk setiap
departemen dan (5) memasukkan seluruh tenaga
kerja menyimpan kata”menndengarkan suara
konsumen”. Tujuan QFD adalah translate permintaan
konsumen sehinga disebut dengan “voice of the
consumer (VOC) menjadi karakteristik final produk atau jasa. QFD menyediakan metode yang
tersistematis menentukan kebutuhan konsumen,
prioritasdan menterjemahkan kedalam parameter
disain produk/jasa menjamin kepuasan konsumen. Satu produk QFD adalah “House of Quality”
(HOQ) matrik, memungkinkan melihat
perbandingan secara visual antara “what customers wants” versus “how production/sevice can give it
to them”. HOQ mengkorelasikan keinginan
kualitas (keinginan konsumen secara sederhana disebut dengan what’s) beraneka makna (disebut
element servis atau how) dimana keinginan
konsumen dapat dipuaskan. Menyusun data matrix
HOQ penting karena kunci dalam penyusunan isu kualitas, interrelationships dan keberartian relative
antar satu dengan lainnya sehingga membuat
kriteria kepuasan konsumen. Manfaat QFD adalah: (1) biaya perancangan
produk dapat lebih murah; (2) mengurangi
keterlambatan dalam hal perubahan secara teknis
(cycle time reduction); (3) dapat mengindentifikasi resiko yang terlalu tinggi atas perancangan produk
dikarenakan perancangan dan pengembangan
produk dilakukan berdasarkan keinginan dan kebutuhan konsumen; (4) mempercepat
pengembangan produk/jasa dan (5) meningkatkan
pendapatan perusahaan melalui penjualan produk
atau jasa tersebut karena produk/jasa yang dihasilkan dapat memenuhi keinginan dan
kebutuhan konsumen
2.6 Hoshin Kanri
Hoshin Kanri adalah kotrol aktivitas secara
sistematis untuk pencapaian annual manajemen
kebijakan yang berdasarkan motto perusahaana,konsep pengelolaan, long/median
term plans, dll., dimana setiap level performa
pekerjaan dibentuk memlalui PDCA untuk
mencapai kesesuaia anta kebijakan. (K Nayatani). Hoshin Kanri merupakan metode penyebaran
formulasi dan implementasi keseluruhan
organisasi, dengan setiap level organisasi mencoba memiliki konstribusi (Fuerer et.all). Hoshin Kanri
adalah system enchasment kapabilitas dan banding
keseluruhan perusahaan untuk improvement of performance dengan mengembangkan unified
kebijakan dan rencana (implementation, check,
action) berdasarkan motto prusahaan (sebagai
dasar konsep manajemen) utuk membentuk manajemen strategi (long, medium, annual
management plan) dengan memanfaatkan sumber
yang ada (Y.Akao)
2.7 Integrasi QFD dengan Hoshin Kanri
Perumusan strategi yang tepat (viewable
strategy) atau sesuai dengan kondisi saat ini sangat
menunjang kemampuan bersaing universitas dalam merespon perubahan secara cepat, beberapa ahli
serta setuju bahwa perumusan strategi sekaligus
penyebarannya secara tepat membantu lembaga terutama untuk meninkatkan kualitas produk yang
dihasilkan serta menjaga dan meningkatkan
kinerjanya untuk mencapai tujuannya dan menghadapai competitor. Integrasi QFD dengan
Hoshin Kanri digunakan untuk melakukan Quality
Strategy Deployment (QSD) atau penyebaran
strategi yang berisikan atribut-atribut kualitas pelayanan
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
III. Metodologi Penelitian
BAGIAN 2
Quality
Strategy
Deployment
Hoshin Kanri
area Strategy
Formulation
Rev
isi
Menentukan Customer
Needs
Menentukan Technical
Response
Menentukan Relationship
Menentukan Technical
Correlation
Menentukan Planning Matrix
:
Importance to Customer
Customer Satisfaction
Performance
Competitive Satisfaction
Performance
Goal & Improvement
Ratio
Sales Point
Raw Weight
Normalized Raw Weight
Menentukan Priority Technical
Respon
Analisa Situasi saat
ini (Prioritas Isu)
berdasarkan HOQ
Membuat Tujuan, Strategi
Pelayanan dan Rencana
Implementasi
Mengkomunikasikan
dan mengimplementasi
rencana
Review rencana
implementasi secara periodik
Analisa Hasil
review Hoshin
Kanri
Penyusunan
Laporan
BAGIAN 1
Quality
Strategy
Development
QFD Area
VOC and
HOQ
Definition
Selesai
House of Quality
Mulai
Survey Pendahuluan
Pengumpulan Data Kualitatif
Identifikasi Variabel
Penentuan atribut kuesioner
Penyebaran dan Pengembalian
Kuisioner Awal
Perumusan Masalah Studi Kepustakaan
Tujuan Penelitian
Penyusunan Kuisioner Awal :
Data diri,
Tingkat kepentingan.
Tingkat kepuasan jasa yang di analisis,
Penentuan Jumlah Kuisioner Final Uji
Bernoulli :
2
2
2
.
e
qpZ
N
Penyusunan Kuisioner Final :
Data diri
Tingkat kepentingan
Tingkat kepuasan yang di analisis
Penyebaran dan
Pengembalian Kuisioner
Final
Uji Validitas
Valid ? Buang
item yg
tidak valid
Uji Reliabilitas
Reliabel
?
Data
Cukup
? Pengolahan Data
Kuantitatif
Penyebaran
Kuesioner
H
O
Q
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
IV. Pengumpulan Data Analisa
4.1 Analisa Kinerja Pelayanan Pendidikan di
Jurusan Teknik Mesin Saat Ini Kinerja Jurusan Teknik Mesin dalam
memberikan layanan saat ini dapat dilihat
berdasarkan gap yang terjadi antara ekspektasi dengan persepsi yang dirasakan oleh pelanggan
saat ini. Berdasarkan hasil penyebaran kuesioner
Tabel 4.1 Tingkat kepentingan Pelanggan
Terhadap Atribut Layanan Kelompok STP TP CP P SP Total
Kepemimpinan 1.70 2.96 17.58 37.67 40.09 100
Kemahasiswaan 1.35 2.02 10.43 39.80 46.41 100
SDM 0.70 1.67 12.30 33.50 51.83 100
Kurikulum 1.08 1.08 17.22 34.62 46.01 100
Sarana & Prasarana 1.15 1.02 8.26 27.03 62.52 100
Pendanaan 1.12 2.69 12.56 39.01 44.62 100
Sistem Pengelolaan 1.20 1.49 7.17 24.51 65.62 100
Sis.Pembelajaran 0.54 1.26 17.85 45.02 35.34 100
Sistem Informasi 0.75 1.20 9.27 29.90 58.89 100
Lulusan 1.12 1.68 15.81 32.17 49.22 100
Penelitian 0.45 1.35 11.21 34.98 52.02 100
Keterangan:
STP : Sangat Tidak Penting; TP: Tidak Penting CP : Cukup Penting; P : Penting
SP : Sangat Penting
Tabel 4.2 Tingkat Kepuasan Pelanggan Terhadap
Atribut Layanan Kelompok STP TP CP P SP Total
Kepemimpinan 1.70 2.96 17.58 37.67 40.09 100
Kemahasiswaan 1.35 2.02 10.4 39.80 46.41 100
SDM 0.70 1.67 12.30 33.50 51.83 100
Kurikulum 1.08 1.08 17.22 34.62 46.01 100
Sarana &Prasarana 1.15 1.02 8.26 27.03 62.52 100
Pendanaan 1.12 2.69 12.56 39.01 44.62 100
Sis. Pengelolaan 1.20 1.49 7.17 24.51 65.62 100
Sis.Pembelajaran 0.54 1.26 17.85 45.02 35.34 100
Sis.Informasi 0.75 1.20 9.27 29.90 58.89 100
Lulusan 1.12 1.68 15.81 32.17 49.22 100
Penelitian 0.45 1.35 11.21 34.98 52.02 100
Keterangan:
STP : Sangat Tidak Puas; TP: Tidak Puas
CP : Cukup Puas; P : Puas SP : Sangat Puas
Jurusan Teknik Mesin masih kurang
optimal dalam memberikan pelayanan yang terbaik
kepada mahsiswa, hal ini terlihat pada gambar gap analisis yang terjadi berdasarkan perbedaan nilai
ekspektasi dan persepsi pelanggan.
4.2 Evaluasi Sistem Pelayanan Jurusan Teknik
Mesin
Gap yang terjadi antara ekspektasi
dengan persepsi pelanggan kemudian digunakan sebagai dasar untuk mengindentifikasi masalah
pada sistem pelayanan JTM FT UNJ yang
menyebabkan terjadinya gap tersebut. Proses
indentifikasi permasalahan dapat dilihat pada diagram sebab akibat (fishbone diagram) pada
lampiran 2. Berdasarkan indentifikasi masalah
terlihat ada 4 permasalahan penyebab utama terjadinya gap antara ekspektasi dengan persepsi
pelanggan, antara lain: (1) Buruknya kualitas
layanan yang disebabkan rendahnya mutu lulusan
(kurikulum, kompetensi umum, budaya akademik dan infrastruktur), kualitas dan kuantitas
variabilitas penelitian dan rendahnya model
pengabdian masyarakat; (2) Rendahnya kualitas SDM, hal ini diakibatkan karena masih renfahnya
keahlian dosen dan tenega kependidikan,
rendahnya keterampilan tenaga administrasi,
rendahnya kualitas mahasiswa dan minimnya peran serta alumni; (3) Kurang baiknya pencitraan
publik Jurusan Teknik Mesin, hal ini diakibatkan
oleh minimnya kemitraan dan komitmen melaksanakan program kerjasama, minimnya akses
pendidikan yang bermutu, rendah dan sempotnya
kualitas publikasi karya ilmiah, masih kurangnya
layanan terhadap mahasiswa; (4) belum optimalnya tata kelola di lingkungan JTM FT UNJ,
oleh karena itu diperlukan reformasi birokrasi,
belum adanya LPjm (Lembaga penjamin mutu) di Jurusan dan minimnya penggunaan Sistem
informasi dalam menajeman administrasi.
4.3 Penyusunan Matriks HOQ I
Tabel 4.3 Analisa Planning matrik berdasarkan peringkat NR
Pering
kat No
Customer Needs and
Benefits Gap NRW
1 K07 Prestasi dalam kegiatan karya
ilmiah 2 2.688
2 K09 Dosen berpendidikan
minimal magister (S2) 2 2.688
3 K10
Dosen yang profesional dan
kompeten sesuai dengan
spesifikasi mata kuliah yang
diajarkan
2 2.688
4 K11
Dosen dan karyawan
responsif terhadap kebutuhan
mahasiswa
2 2.688
5 K12
Karyawan ramah dan
profesional dalam melayani
mahasiswa
2 2.688
6 K19
Kesenjangan kurikulum
dengan dunia kerja diatasi
dengan menerima input dari
dunia kerja dan alumni
(stakeholders)
2 2.688
7 K21
Lembaga menyediakan
laboratorium dan
perlengkapannya sesuai
dengan kebutuhan
2 2.688
8 K22
Ketersediaan tempat ibadah,
air dan fasilitas MCK yang
memadai
2 2.688
9 K23
Penggunaan ruang
kuliah/laboratorium sesui
dengan jadwal
2 2.688
10 K25
Kelengkapan sarana belajar
mengajar (white board,
LCD,dll)
2 2.688
11 K26
Ketersediaan buku/jurnal dan
lain-lain di perpustakaan
dalam menunjang
perkuliahan yang up-to date
2 2.688
12
K27
Standar Operasional
Prosedur (SOP) penggunaan
sarana dan prasaranan di
lingkungan JTM FT UNJ
2 2.688
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
Tabel 4.3 Analisa Planning matrik berdasarkan
peringkat NR (lanjutan) Pering
kat No
Customer Needs and
Benefits Gap NRW
13 K33
KRS/KHS tercetak tepat
waktu dan tidak ada
kekeliruan
2 2.688
14 K34
Dosen pembimbing responsif
dalam memberikan nasehat
perkuliahan
2 2.688
15 K35
Standarisasi mutu
pembelajaran diterapkan
sesuai dengan peraturan,
seperti 2 SKS minimal 14
tatap muka
2 2.688
16 K41 Dosen memberikan diktat,
Handout dalam perkuliahan 2 2.688
17 K42
Standarisasi mutu
pembelajaran diterapkan
sesuai dengan peraturan,
seperti 2 SKS minimal 14
tatap muka
2 2.688
18 K43 Pembelajaran berlangsung
interaktif 2 2.688
19 K06
Peranan BEMJ menyalurkan
aspirasi, minat dan bakat
mahasiswa
1 2.151
20 K36 Pembelajaran berlangsung
interaktif 1 2.151
21 K40 Pemberian nilai yang
obyektif oleh dosen 1 2.151
22 K03
Keterlibatan mahasiswa
dalam proses pemilihan
pimpinan di lingkungan JTM
FT UNJ
2 1.792
23 K04 Sistem monitoring dan
evaluasi 3 1.792
24 K05
Mekanisme pemilihan
mahasiswa berprestasi dan
penghargaan terhadap
mahasiswa berprestasi
2 1.792
25 K13 Rasio jumlah dosen terhadap
mahasiswa 2 1.792
26 K14 Sistem penenerimaan
mahasiswa baru yang selektif 2 1.792
27 K15 Kode etik dosen 2 1.792
28 K16
Perubahan kurikulum
dilakukan secara
berkesinambungan dengan
melakukan workshop
2 1.792
29 K18
Bahan pembelajaran
mengikuti perkembangan
IPTEKS
2 1.792
30 K20 Materi praktek yang
memadai 2 1.792
31 K24 Kenyamanan ruang
kuliah/laboratorium 2 1.792
32 K28
Penggunaan anggaran untuk
pengadaan peralatan/bahan
untuk praktekum memiliki
porsi yang lebih banyak
2 1.792
33 K29
Penggunaan anggaran untuk
pemeliharaan sarana &
prasarana
2 1.792
34 K31
Kemampuan Jurusan
memperoleh dana dari luar
institusi
2 1.792
35 K39
Kesesuaian materi kuliah dan
penilaian sesuai dengan
deskripsi mata kuliah dan
SAP yang disampaikan
2 1.792
36 K44 Lulus dengan tepat waktu
(maks.5 tahun) 2 1.792
37
K46
Mahasiswa memperoleh
bimbingan karir dan
informasi kerja
2 1.792
Tabel 4.3 Analisa Planning matrik berdasarkan
peringkat NR (lanjutan) Pering
kat No
Customer Needs and
Benefits Gap NRW
38 K47 Setelah lulus mahasiswa
dapat berwirausaha 2 1.792
39 K48
Hasil penelitian/Skripsi/TA
dapat bermanfaat bagi
masyarakat dan industri
2 1.792
40 K01
Mekanisme pemilihan
pimpinan di lingkungan JTM
FT UNJ (Ka.Jur, Ka.Prog,
Ka. Lab dan lain-lain)
berdasarkan kepatutan dan
kepantasan
1 1.434
41 K02 Sosialisasi rencana strategis
JTM FT UNJ 1 1.434
42 K08
Lembaga memberikan
kesempatan mahasiswa
berkembang dengan optimal
1 1.434
43 K17 Kesesuaian kurikulum
dengan tuntutan dunia kerja 1 1.434
44 K30
Sistem monitoring dan
evaluasi pendanaan yang
transparan
1 1.434
45 K32
Informasi dan prosedur
penyusunan/perbaikan KRS,
KHS, PKL, PPL dan
TA/Skripsi melalui buku
pedoman yang tersedia
1 1.434
46 K37
Standarisasi mutu
pembelajaran diterapkan
sesuai dengan peraturan,
seperti 2 SKS minimal 14
tatap muka
1 1.434
47 K38 Pembelajaran berlangsung
interaktif 1 1.434
48 K45 Lulusan JTM FT UNJ
memiliki TOEFL>=400 1 1.434
Sumber: diolah, Juni 2008
4.4 Pembentukan Strategic Vision
Perencanaan strategi yang disusun untuk meningkatkan kualitas pelayanan pendidikan di
JTM FT UNJ terlebih dahulu dibentuk visi untuk
membentuk strategi atau strategic vision (SV). Visi ini dibentuk berdasarkan hasil dari QFD dan
renstra UNJ, hal ini merupakan konsekuensi logis
agar sesuai dengan kebutuhan konsumen dan sinergisitas dengan unit yang lainnya. SV disusun
berdasarkan prioritas tertinggi dari RIW atas TR.
SV yang dibuat juga mempertimbangkan visi, misi
dan renstra UNJ dan FT UNJ agar sinergis.
Tabel4.4 Proses Pembentukkan Strategic Vision
Element No Strategic Vision
Element
Prior
itas
Techical Response
1 Peningkatan
Mutu Relevansi
dan Daya Saing
1 Peningkatan kualitas sarana dan
prasarana akademik
2 Peningkatan kualitas Proses
Belajar Mengajar
8 Peningkatan kualitas bahan ajar
9 Pemberdayaan lab sebagai
pusat riset dan penghasil
IPTEK
16 Pengembangan perpustakaan
22 Peningkatan kualitas media
pembelajaran
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
Tabel 4.4 Proses Pembentukkan Strategic Vision
Element (Lanjutan) No Strategic Vision
Element
Prior
itas
Techical Response
2 Penguatan Tata
Kelola dan
Akuntabilitas
3 Pembuatan basis data sarana
dan prasarana penunjang
kegiatan akademik
4 Pembentukan tim satuan tugas
pembuatan basis data
5 Pembuatan basis data kegiatan
akademik
10 Peningkatan kualitas kinerja
dosen
15 Evalusi diri berdasarkan basis
data program studi
19 Workshop penyusunan SAP
dan Bahan Ajar
23 Penerapan sistem rekrutmen
dosen baru (minimal S2)
3 Pencitraan
Publik
6 Menjalin mitra kerjasama,
SMK instansi lain, industri dan
Pemda DKI serta
mengoptimalkan kerjasama
yang suda ada
11 Penghargaan mahasiswa
berprestasi
21 Optimalisasi Peran
Buletin/media publikasi di JTM
FT UNJ
24 Peningkatan kemampuan
bahasa Inggris dosen
26 Peningkatan kualitas publikasi
ilmiah
18 Pengaktifkan IKA Jurusan,
membuat data base alumni dan
melakukan tacher study alumni
4 Sumber Daya
Manusia
7 Peningkatkan kemampuan
berfikir kritis dan anaritis
Mahasiswa
12 Pengiriman dosen untuk studi
lanjut S2 dan S3
13 Peningkatan kualitas
mahasiswa baru
14 Peningkatan kualitas penelitian
dosen
17 Peningkatan kemampuan staf
adminsitrasi terhadap tugas
pokok dan fungsinya
20 Pelatihan ketrampilan
bersertifikasi bagi dosen
25 Peningkatkan kemampuan
berfikir kritis dan analitis
Mahasiswa
27 Peningkatan kemampuan skill
teknisi/laboran
Sumber: diolah, Juni 2008
4.5 Penentuan Sasaran Strategik
Berdasarkan Critical process dan Critical
succsess Metriks ditentukan Hoshin Objectives atau strategi Hoshin Plan, berdasarkan kriteria di
atas selanjutnya dibentuk Hoshin Objectives, yang
terdiri: (1) Penguatan tatakelola dan akuntabilitas
JTM FT UNJ; (2) Meningkatkan kualitas SDM untuk meningkatkan pelayanan yang terbaik bagi
pelanggan; (3) Peningkatan Keunggulan mutu,
relevansi dan daya saing dan (4) Pencitaan publik.
4.6 Pembentukan Strategi Pembentukan strategi pelayanan
didasarkan atas objectives yang telah disusun, sebagai petunjuk akan langkah-langkah yang
hendak dilakukan untuk mencapai objectives.
Pembentukkan strategi pelayanan yang didasarkan
atas permasalahan yang berhubungan dengan objectives itu sendiri yang mempunyai indikator
kinerja yang terukur, hal ini dilakukan agar
langkah yang diambil terukur, terarah dan memudahkan dalam melakukan review atau
perbaikan dikemudian hari.
Gambar 4.1: Pembentukkan Strategi Pelayanan pada level pertama
Hoshin
Objectives
First Level Strategies
TUJUAN 1
Pengingkatan
keunggulan
dan daya saing
Meningkatkan mutu lulusan
(kurikulum, kompetensi umum, budaya
akademik, infrastruktur)
Peningkatan kuantitas, kualitas, dan
variabilitas penelitian
Pengembangan model pengabdian pada
masyarakat
TUJUAN 2
Peningkatan Tata
kelola dan
akuntabilitas
Reformasi birokrasi (SADA)
Optimalisasi LPjM
Pengembangan Sistem Informasi (SI)
berbasis pada manajemen pengetahuan
(Knowledge management)
TUJUAN 3
Peningkatan
Sumber Daya
Manusia yang
unggul untuk
memberikan
pelayanan yang
terbaik
Peningkatan keahlian dosen dan tenaga
kependidikan
Peningkatan keterampilan tenaga
administrasi
Peningkatan kualitas mahasiswa dan
peran serta alumni
TUJUAN 4
Meningkatkan
pencitraan publik
Perluasan jejaring kemitraan dan
komitmen pelaksanaannya
Perluasan akses bagi pendidikan yang
bermutu
Perluasan dan peningkatan kualitas
publikasi
Peningkatan pelayanan prima
Sumber: diolah, Juni 2008
4.7 Penyebaran Strategi
Penyebaran strategi dilakukan dengan
menetapkan level penyebaran pada struktur
organisasi. Strategi yang telah dibentuk kemudian
disebarkan disebarkan sampai ke level dua saja untuk menghindari pengulangan objectives karena
untuk level selanjutnya diaggap sebagai pelaksana
untuk mencapai kebijakan yang telah ditentukan oleh atasannya, selain itu pada level kedua
dianggap sudah mampu menentukan langkah
selanjutnya dalam mencapai kebijakan yang telah
digariskan oleh UNJ. Mekanisme penyebaran strategi dimulai dengan pembentukkan strategi
pada level pertama kemudian dilanjutkan dengan
penyebaran strategi kelevel yang berada dibawahnya. Streategi dilevel pertama akan
menjadi tujuan pada level selanjutnya. Artinya
second level strategies harus dilakukan untuk mencapai first-level strategies dan seterusnya.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
Gambar 4. 2: Penyebaran Strategi Pelayanan
Hoshin Objectives First Level Strategies Second Level Strategies
TUJUAN 1
Pengingkatan
keunggulan
dan daya saing
Meningkatkan mutu
lulusan (kurikulum,
kompetensi umum,
budaya akademik,
infrastruktur)
Mengembangkan kurikulum dan silabus yang unggul sesuai dengan per
kembangan IPTEKS dan kebutuhan stakeholders
Mengembangkan metode, teknik, dan media pengajaran yang terbaru dan sesuai
dengan tuntutan stakeholder
Mengembangkan model PPL yang sesuai dengan kompetensi lulusan bidang
keilmuan
Mengembangkan standar mutu setiap program dan melakukan perbaikan
berkesinambungan
Menerima masukan mahasiswa dengan kriteria unggul
Menghasilkan lulusan yang unggul
Penyusunan RPKPS setiap matakuliah
Peningkatan kuantitas,
kualitas, dan variabilitas
penelitian
Pusat kajian pengembangan keilmuan
Kelompok peneliti sesuai dg minat dan bidang keilmuan
Kelompok peneliti ahli dalam menghasilkan PHK
Penelitian kemitraan di tingkat lokal, nasional, dan internasional
Publikasi hasil penelitian
Penggunaan hasil penelitian oleh pemerintah, DUDI, organisasi, dan masyarakat
Pengembangan model
pengabdian pada
masyarakat
Meningkatkan kegiatan pengabdian kepada masyarakat atas dasar tanggungjawab
sosial demi kepentingan rakyat.
Melaksanakan kegiatan pengabdian kepada masyarakat berdasarkan hasil-hasil
penelitian untuk menyelesaikan masalah-masalah aktual di masyarakat
Meningkatkan kompetensi sosial mahasiswa yang merupakan bagian integral dari
proses pendidikan.
Melaksanakan kegiatan pemberdayaan masyarakat yang berbasis partisipasi
masyarakat.
TUJUAN 2
Peningkatan Tata
kelola dan
akuntabilitas
Reformasi birokrasi
(SADA)
Pembentukan sistem adminiatrasi yang terintegrasi
Penyediaan sarana dan prasarana
Pelatihan tenaga administrasi untuk menunjang SADA
Monev secara berkala
Optimalisasi LPjM Evaluasi di tingkat jurusan secara berkala memanfaatkan basis data
Audit internal secara beksinambungan
Pengembangan Sistem
Informasi (SI) berbasis
pada manajemen
pengetahuan
(Knowledge
management)
Pembentukan tim satuan tugas pembuatan basis data dan pengelolanya
Penyusunan basis data akademik, sarana dan pasarana, SDM
Penyediakan perangkat TI dan jaringan
TUJUAN 3
Peningkatan Sumber
Daya Manusia yang
unggul untuk
memberikan
pelayanan yang
terbaik
Peningkatan keahlian
dosen dan tenaga
kependidikan
Program studi lanjut bagi dosen dengan pemberian beasiswa
Peta pendidikan dosen dengan pencapaian 75% S2 dan 25% berpendidikan S3
yang sesuai dengan bidang keahlian dan tanggung jawab akademiknya
Peningkatan TOEFL dosen
Peningkatan
keterampilan tenaga
administrasi
Program pelatihan TI untuk staff administrasi
Program pelatihan layanan pulik
Peningkatan kualitas
mahasiswa dan peran
serta alumni
Pembuatan website JTM FT UNJ
Peningkatan rekrutment mahasiswa baru yang berkualitas
Pengaktifan kembali IKA FT UNJ dengan menyelenggarakan temu alumni secara
rutin
TUJUAN 4
Meningkatkan
pencitraan publik
Perluasan jejaring
kemitraan dan komitmen
pelaksanaannya
Pengalokasian dana untuk program pertukaran dosen dan mahasiswa.
Perintisan kerjasama dengan perguruan tinggi luar negeri melalui berbagai
forum/seminar internasional dan melalui jaringan dosen yang pernah studi lanjut di
luar negeri.
Publikasi hasil karya ilmiah dosen dan kegiatan akademik lainnya dalam media
cetak dan elektronik
Program sandwich dengan universitas terkemuka di luar negeri
Perluasan akses bagi
pendidikan yang
bermutu
Pemberian Beasiswa bagi mahasiswa yang berlatar belakang ekonomi kurang
mampu dan memiliki prestasi yang baik
Peningkatan kualitas layanan program studi
Pengembangan hasil kajian yang implikatif terhadap pembangunan masyarakat
Manajemen rekrutmen mahasiswa yang mendapatkan mahasiswa baru yang
berkualitas
Perluasan dan
peningkatan kualitas
publikasi
Peningkatan Kemampuan Berbahasa Inggris Dosen, Mahasiswa, dan Tenaga
administrasi.
Intensitas Kegiatan Ilmiah nasional dan Internasional
Program Kembaran
Peningkatan pelayanan
prima
Standarisasi layanan administrasi, sesuai dengan SOP
Pemanfatan Teknologi Informasi dalam layanan administrasi
Sumber: diolah, Juni 2008
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
V. Kesimpulan 5.1 Berdasarkan identifikasi terhadap keinginan
dan kebutuhan mahasiswa JTM FT UNJ maka
diperoleh informasi sebagai berikut (a)
kualitas SDM yang menunjang (dosen dan karyawan) 14,28%; (b) pembelajaran
berlangsung dengan interaktif didukung
dengan kurikulum yang sesuai dengan
perkembangan IPTEKs dan tutntutan kerja, sehingga lulusan JTM FT UNJ memiliki mutu
dan berdaya saing: 26,19 %; (c) efektifitas
pengelolaan dan keramahan dalam melayani mahasiswa. Transparansi penilaian, SOP
sehingga lembaga responsif terhadap
kebutuhan mahasiswa: 9,52%;(d) lulus
dengan tepat waktu dengan kualitas penelitian yang baik: 9,52%; (e) ketersediaan sarana dan
prasarana perkuliahan ditunjang dengan
fasilitas teknologi Informasi dan mampu memperoleh sumber pendanaan diluar
institusi, seperti: dana grand atau kerjasama
dengan institusi lainnya: 35,72% dan (f) pencitraan publik:4,77%
5.2 Kinerja JTM FT UNJ dalam memberikan
pelayanan pendidikan dinilai kurang
memuaskan. Hal ini dapat terlihat dari tingginya gap antara ekspektasi dan persepsi
terhadap kualitas layanan. Gap terbesar adalah
4 sebanyak 2,08%, gap 3 sebanyak 41,67% . Nilai Gap terkecil adalah 2 sebanyak 56,25%.
5.3 Berdasarkan hasil identifikasi terhadap isu-isu
penting dalam upaya meningkatkan kualitas layanan pendidikan diperoleh informasi
berupa kriteria bentuk layanan yang perlu
ditingkatkan kinerjanya; (1) peningkatan mutu
relevansi dan daya saing dapat memenuhi kebutuhan pelanggan sebesar 33,687%; (2)
penguatan tatakelola dan akuntabilitas
memiliki bobot sebesar 28,291; (3) Pencitraan publik memiliki konstribusi dalam memenuhi
kebutuhan pelanggan adalah 16,435% dan (4)
pengembangan sumber daya manusia
memiliki porsi sebesar 21,832%. 5.4 Proses perencanaan strategi mengintegrasikan
QFD dengan Hoshin Kanri dibuat usulan
strategi dan penyebarannya samapi level 2 dalam struktur organisasi Jurusan Teknik
Mesin. Usulan tersebut terdiri dari 13 strategi
pada level pertama dan 57 strategi pada level kedua. Usulan Usulan strategi tersebut
disesuaikan dengan visi dan misi lembaga
yaitu mengantisipasi tantangan dan peluang di
era globalisasi melalui peningkatan pelayanan dan penyelenggaraan pengajaran, penelitian,
dan pengabdian masyarakat untuk
menghasilkan SDM yang memiliki
keunggulan akademis, professional di bidang
teknik mesin dengan memenuhi kriteria ke empat strategik vision untuk memenuhi
layanan: jasa intrakulikuler, jasa
ektrakulikuler, jasa penelitian, jasa pengabdian masyarakat, jasa kebijakan umum
dan jasa administras
Referensi [1] Akao Y (1990). Hoshin Kanri: Policy
Deployment for Successful TQM, Productivity
Pers US.
[2] Amin W Tunggal, W., (1993). Manajemen
Mutu Terpadu, Jakarta: Rineka Cipta.
[3] A.Z, Valariea, A. Parasuraman & Leonard
L.B (1990). Delivering Quality Service,
London: The Free press.
[4] BAN-PT (2007) Naskah Akademik Akreditasi
Institusi Perguruan Tinggi 2007.
[5] Bechtell M.L. (1995) The Management
Compass: Steering The Corporation Using
Hoshin Planning, New York: AMA Membership Publication Devision American
Management Association.
[6] Buku Pedoman Akademik Universitas Negeri
Jakarta (2008). Universitas Negeri Jakarta.
[7] Cohen. (1995). QFD: How to Make QFD
Work For You. Addison Wesley.
[8] Cohenu, Lou, (1996). QFD How to make your QFD work for you. NY: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company.
[9] Fred R. David. (2007). Strategic Management
Conceps and Cases Eleven Edition. New
Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall
[10] Gaspersz, Vincent, (2001). Metode Untuk
Peningkatan Kualitas, Jakarta: Gramedia
Pustaka Utama.
[11] Glenn D. Israel (1992) Determining Sampling
Size Fact Sheet PEOD-6. Florida: University of Florida)
[12] Gronross C, (2001). Service Management and
Marketing. England: John Wiley&Son
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
[13] G. Thomas Cumming & Christopher G.
Worley. (2005).Organization Deplopment and
Change, Eighth Edition.
[14] James, F.A & F.Mona J, (2006). Service
Management; Operation, strategy, information technology. USA: Mc Graw Hill.
[15] J.B, Revelle, Moran JW & Cox C.A (1998).
The QFD handbook. Canada:John Wiley&Sons Inc.
[16] L. Thomas Jackson. (2006). Hoshin Kanri For The LeanDeveloping Competitive Capabilities
Managing Profit Enterprise. New York:
Productivity Press
[17] Pekdemir, Isil, C. Cuneyt Arslantas et. all A
Study on Hoshin Kanri Planning Sistem
Syastem Aplications in Companies That Have Received ISO 9001-9002 Certification From
The Turkish Standards Institution, Istanbul
University, School of Business Administration.
[18] Richard B. Chase, F. Robert Jacobs &
Nicholas J. Aquilano, (2004). Operation Management For Competitive Advantage
Tenth Edition. New York: Mc Graw Hill
[19] Roberts; Paul, & Charles Tennant,
Application of the Hoshin Kanri methodology
at a higher education establishment in UK
[20] Sekaran, Uma (1992) Research methods for
business, (New York: Jhon Wiley and Son
Inc).
[21] Soin & Sarv Sigh (1993). Total Quality
Control Essentials: Key Elements Metodologies and Managing for Succses.
Singapore: Mc Graw Hill.
[22] Tim Kemahasiswaan. (2006). Strategi Pengembangan Kemahasiswaan Universitas
Negeri Jakarta. Jakarta: UNJ
[23] Tim Pengembang UNJ, (2007). Portofolio
Akreditasi Institusi Universitas Negeri
Jakarta. Jakarta: UNJ
[24] Tjiptono, F & Diana,A. (2000), Total Quality
Management. Yogyakarta: Andi Penerbit
Andi Yogyakarta, Edisi Revisi.
[25] Witcher, Barry & Rosemary Butterworth.
(1999). What is Hoshin Kanri (a review). East
Anglia: School of Management University of East Anglia.
[26] Zairi, Mohamad, (2006). Handbook of Bussines “ Hoshin planning: strategy of
adifferent kinds, Emerald.
[27] Ashok Kumar, Jiju Antony dan Tej S. Dhakar, Integrating Quality Fuctional Deployment
and Bechmarking to Actieve Greater
Profitability, Bechmarking: An International Journal Vol.13 No. 3, 2006
[28] Gonzalez M.E, Costumer Satisfaction using
QFD: an e-Banking Case”, Managing Service Quality, Vol. 14 No.4
[29] Hwarang, HB., C Teo., Translating Costumers Voices into Operations
Requirement: a QFD application in hinger
Education. International Journal of Quality & Reability Management Vol.1 No.20
[30] Shie-ming Chou, Evaluating the Service
Quality of Undergraduate Nursing Education in Taiwan-Using Quality Fuction
Deployment, Journal Nurse Education Today:
2004
[31] Pun K.F, Chin KS, Lau H, aQFD/Hoshin
Kanri Approach for service Quality Deployment, Journal Managing Service
Quality Vol.10 No.3, MCB University Pers,
2000
[32] Daan C. Brown, Ron Meier, Industrial
Technology Program Enchancement: The
Importance of Strategic Planning, Journal of Industrial Technology Vol 21 No 4, Oktober-
Desember 2005
[33] Yoshio Kondo, Hoshin Kanri- a participative
way of Quality Management in Japan, Journal
TQM, Vol 10 No.6, 1998
[34] Workforce Performance,
http://www.opm.gov/perform/articles/038.htm,
27 Maret 2008
[35] Aliah and Hoshin Planning,
http://aliah.pgh.pa.us/Aliah/hoshin.html, Maret 2008
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
DANISH RESEARCH UNIT FOR I NDUSTRIAL DYNAMICS
DRUID Working Paper No 00-10
Value-based management in learning organizations through 'hard' and 'soft' managerial approaches:
The case of Hewlett-Packard
By
Søren NymarkSeptember, 2000
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
Value-based management in learning organizations through'hard' and 'soft' managerial approaches: The case of Hewlett-Packard1
Senior Consultant Søren R. Nymark, Ph.D.KPMG Consulting
Borups Allé 177, P.O. Box 250, DK-2000 Frederiksberg, DenmarkTel.: +45 3818 3818, Email: [email protected]
Abstract
‘Learning organizations’ enable companies to remove hierarchical levels and to
introduce a flatter organizational structure, which can lead to reduced costs and increased
productivity. A recent Danish study has proved coherence between a flat, integrative
organizational structure and an increased productivity. This enables a kind of
management in which the managerial form is not as direct as it is in more traditional
structured companies. Value-based management is advanced as a possible answer to the
question of which managerial form that is appropriate for these kind of companies.
In the article, value-based management is described as well as the underlying factors that
are affected by such a managerial form. Required managerial elements in relation to
value-based management are advanced. Examples from Hewlett-Packard are used to
illustrate both the use of value-based management in practice and the underlying factors.
Keywords:
Organizational learning, organizational storytelling, organizational memory,
organizational culture, value-based management, learning organization, Hewlett-Packard
JEL:
L22, L63, M14
ISBN(87-7873-094-5)
1 Comments from Associate Professor Jørgen Gulddahl Rasmussen, Ph.D., at Aalborg University to a
previous version of the paper are highly appreciated.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
Introduction: A description of a learning organization
The field of organizational learning, that is relevant for this article, can be defined
through the following widely acknowledged statements:
”Organizational learning means the process of improving actions throughbetter knowledge and understanding.” (Fiol & Lyles, 1985: 803)”Organizations are seen as learning by encoding inferences from historyinto routines that guide behavior.” (Levitt & March, 1988: 319)”Organizational learning occurs through shared insights, knowledge, andmental models … [and] build on past knowledge and experience, that is, onmemory.” (Stata, 1989: 64)
Thus, there will be focused on the cognitive processes that enable organizational learn-
ing. On how information and the impressions from the surroundings become manifest in
the organization, and how meaning is deducted from otherwise paradoxical experiences
and information. The processes of learning that flows in the organization need continu-
ously to contribute to the organization’s development with learning of second order.
Second order learning is the learning that arises, when an incident makes one re-examine
and question one’s basic values and objectives.
Second order learning is thus a necessity for continuous development. If only first order
learning takes place without reflective loops back to examine basic understandings, then
companies will continue to develop in a certain direction until they meet a radical crisis,
which may cause the company to change direction dramatically or to die. The theory
about learning organizations is a theory of continuous development without radical cri-
sis. In order to ensure a company future survival, daily learning processes of first order
must take place, as well as the critical reflection, that is given by a learning process of
second order, must occur from time to time. For example, a centralized mechanistic or-
ganizational structure will be liable to build on previous behavior, while a more decen-
tralized flexible organizational structure will claim new knowledge to a larger degree
(Duncan, 1974).
A company, that has ambitions to become a ‘learning organization’, need what has been
labeled as ‘high caliber’ employees. Characteristic for such employees is that they 1) are
highly educated, 2) have the ability to acquire new knowledge fast and continuously
adapt to new conditions, 3) possess the ability to work without supervision and control,
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
2
being able to lay down own goals, observe the outcome of these goals, and correct errors
that may occur, 4) have good interpersonal skills, and 4) possess the ability to solve
problems by creative evaluation of different possibilities, and by contributing with own
ideas to reach solutions to the emerging problems (Barrow & Loughlin, 1992: 5).
This will enable companies to remove hierarchical levels and to introduce a flatter or-
ganizational structure, which can lead to reduced costs and increased productivity. A re-
cent Danish study proved coherence between a flat, integrative organizational structure
and increased productivity (Nymark, 1999). Therefore a challenge for the management
is to create room for an organizational form in which learning and innovation are en-
couraged.
Morsing (1995: 3) concludes that just as impossible it is to force people to be spontane-
ous, just as impossible is it to enforce people to be creative, to act more independent or
to take on more responsibility. Thus the management has not any direct possibility to
force employees to act spontaneously, take initiatives, and to learn from their experi-
ences. The management needs to create room in the organization that urges the employ-
ees to develop the characteristics that is considered necessary for ‘learning organiza-
tions’ or for making organizational learning possible. It is pointed out that the manage-
ment cannot force renewal, but management can try to create an environment for radical
renewal by influencing the processes in the organization that is a requisite for second or-
der learning (Morsing, 1995: 27). Continuous learning cannot as such be ‘implemented’.
Garvin (1993) argues that a learning organization is one that encourages learning among
its employees and continuously reorganizes itself. A learning organization is character-
ized by 1) a social climate in which employees are encouraged to learn and develop their
full potential, 2) a strong integration between human resources and companies strategic
policy, and 3) keeping the organization in a continuous state of transforming itself
(Pedler, Burgoyne & Boydell, 1989). Dogdson further defines a learning organization as
one that consequently adopts organizational forms and strategies that encourage learning
(1993: 387).
Value-based managementThe emphasis on learning organizations also requires another managerial form than the
traditional authoritatively form with focus on supervision and regulation. The manage-
ment needs to focus on communication of values and visions. This managerial focus is
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
3
called value-based management. It is highly relevant for companies in change-intensive,
knowledge based industries with a high degree of highly educated employees.
Value-based management can fundamentally be seen as an indirect managerial style. It is
concerned with making the employees carry out the correct work assignments on their
own initiative without ordering them directly to do so. In knowledge based companies
the circumstance also exists that the management does not know what the employees
specifically are supposed to do, and the management is not expected to know. The man-
agement’s role is to define, create, and communicate the conditions in which knowledge
workers can work. Conditions about what is acceptable behavior, and which actions are
appropriate in relation to the management’s vision and company values. By this infor-
mation from the management the employees deduct their understanding of conditions
and direction in the company. Value-based management is thus a managerial form that is
concerned with making a group of people work together towards a mutual goal without
explicit managerial pressure and use of power.
Hewlett-Packard has practiced these ideas for more than half a century. The previous
CEO of Hewlett-Packard, Lew Platt, explains:
“In the HP environment, you really can’t order people to do anything. AsCEO my job is to encourage people to work together, to experiment, to trythings, but I can’t order them to do it. We’ve picked people who are high-energy self-starters. You can’t tell them what to do. The best I can do is sortof bring people together and hope they mate.”“The philosophy of The HP Way is built on guiding rather than telling: in-stead of telling people what to do, real leaders focus on helping people findtheir own way through ‘adaptive challenges’ – problems without readilyapparent solutions.”“I spend a lot of my time talking about values rather than trying to figureout the business strategies. I don’t think I realized until I became CEO andstarted to talk to other CEOs how different that is. The most important as-pect of the management of this company is cultural control. Get that and therest follows.” (Nymark, 2000)
At Hewlett-Packard the organizational values are described in an inhouse publication
called ‘The HP Way’. These organizational values are described in Textbox 1. ‘The HP
Way’ contains the company philosophy as it was seen in the late 1950s, and it has been
revised only little since. The founders, Bill Hewlett and David Packard, saw ‘The HP
Way’ as the ‘glue’ that kept the company together, and as a critical factor for Hewlett-
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
4
Packard’s success. ‘The HP Way’ was written based on 20 years of experience with the
management of Hewlett-Packard since its start in 1939. To a large degree it can be noted
that the founders of Hewlett-Packard already in the late 1930s foresaw many of the ten-
dencies in organization and management that have become today’s management fashion
(Nymark, 2000: xi).
These values at Hewlett-Packard are commented in the publication as:
‘HP’s organizational values are a set of deeply held beliefs that govern andguide our behavior in meeting our objectives and in dealing with eachother, our customers, shareholders and others’ (Hewlett-Packard, 1997).
‘HP’s objectives and values have guided us very well for more than half acentury. We believe they are what will give us firm footing in this rapidlychanging environment’ (Lew Platt in Hewlett-Packard, 1997).
Textbox 1: Organizational values at Hewlett-Packard
We have trust and respect for individuals.
We approach each situation with the belief that people want to do a good job and will do so, given the proper tools and support. We attract highly capable, diverse, innovative people and recognize their efforts and contributions to the company. HP people contribute enthusiastically and share in the success that they make possible.
We focus on a high level of achievement and contribution.
Our customers expect HP products and services to be of the highest quality and to provide lasting value. To achieve this, all HP people, especially managers, must be leaders who generate enthusiasm and respond with extra effort to meet customer needs. Techniques and management practices which are effective today may be outdated in the future. For us to remain at the forefront in all our activities, people should always be looking for new and better ways to do their work.
We conduct our business with uncompromising integrity.
We expect HP people to be open and honest in their dealings to earn the trust and loyalty of others. People at every level are expected to adhere to the highest standards of business ethics and must understand that anything less is unac-ceptable. As a practical matter, ethical conduct cannot be assured by written HP policies and codes; it must be an inte-gral part of the organization, a deeply ingrained tradition that is passed from one generation of employees to another.
We achieve our common objectives through teamwork.
We recognize that it is only through effective cooperation within and among organizations that we can achieve our goals. Our commitment is to work as a worldwide team to fulfill the expectations of our customers, shareholders and others who depend upon us. The benefits and obligations of doing business are shared among all HP people.
We encourage flexibility and innovation.
We create an inclusive work environment which supports the diversity of our people and stimulates innovation. We strive for overall objectives which are clearly stated and agreed upon, and allow people flexibility in working toward goals in ways that they help determine are best for the organization. HP people should personally accept responsibility and be encouraged to upgrade their skills and capabilities through ongoing training and development. This is espe-cially important in a technical business where the rate of progress is rapid and where people are expected to adapt to change.
Hewlett-Packard (1997); Nymark (2000: 140).
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
5
The organizational values of Hewlett-Packard, described in Textbox 1, are somewhat
broad and flexible, even though they communicate an understanding or feeling for ap-
propriate behavior in Hewlett-Packard to the individual employee. The values need to be
flexible in order to be enduring over time, but one might question the effect as the values
are vaguely defined. A consequence is that the concept of ‘storytelling’ must supplement
the focus on organizational values. Through ‘storytelling’ the organizational values are
communicated and made concrete.
Storytelling in organizations
Stories are in every culture considered a media for providing meaning and understanding
of the world for the individual: “It has been proposed that man lives by stories (Mitroff
& Kilmann, 1976: 189); that people in organizations are ‘natural, born storytellers’
(Boje, 1994: 433); that man is ‘a storytelling animal by nature’ (Eco, 1983: 13); and the
human race is even considered as ‘homo narrans’ (Fisher, 1984).” (Nymark, 2000: 47).
Stories are told at all levels in an organization. The stories are evaluated by their recipi-
ents on criterions as verisimilitude, and to whether the stories make sense out of events
encountered by the individual.
Here focus is on the function that both formal and informal stories have in organizations.
Formal stories are seen as a means for communicating the management’s visions about
the company future as well as the set of values, which the company emphasizes. Formal
stories can for instance have the form of the management’s speeches at employee meet-
ings, vision and value statements in internal brochures, and books written by the man-
agement. Formal stories reflect the image of the company that the management prefers
to communicate to both internal and external stakeholders. Through formal stories man-
agement influences organizational cultures.
Informal stories are of an uncontrollable and fundamental character in an organization.
Informal stories are stories that make sense out of otherwise paradoxical and ambiguous
events in the organization for the individual employee. If for instance an employee is in
a situation where the employee has acted in accordance with the organization’s set of
values, but the action is resented in the organization, and the employee subsequently
consults a colleague, then the event often will be explained in the form of a story. Infor-
mal stories arise in the situation and are not as such something the employees are con-
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
6
scious of in everyday situations. A story will, based on the company history, explain
why an otherwise rational action according to the company’s values is not comme il faut
in that specific situation. Thus the story gives meaning to an ambiguous situation so the
employee is able to act with increased understanding of the organizational cultures in
future situations.
An organization’s cultures consist of elements with different degrees of visibility.
Norms and assumptions lie deeply rooted and implicit in the organization’s cultures.
Also the values, that the organization is built on, can be found here. These values are
shaped over time through different factors, which influence the organization’s culture.
One way, in which these values are shaped and thus influence the organizational cul-
tures, is through the organizational stories. When values in organizational cultures lie
implicit, they can be hard both to grasp for new employees and to communicate explic-
itly to other employees. This function is thus maintained through organizational stories.
It is through the stories that elements of the cultures are communicated throughout the
organization. Hereby employees learn what is acceptable in the organization and what is
not. In the stories this is communicated explicitly, but also an implicit understanding or
intuitive understanding is communicated in the morale of the stories, which thus con-
tributes to an increased ability for employees to act appropriately in the organization in
other situations.
Formal and informal stories can be seen as correcting each other. If the stories that the
management communicates do not correlate to the organizational reality as the employ-
ees see it, then informal stories arise between the employees to adjust for this incongru-
ity. It can cause the management and thus the company more harm than otherwise, so in
that sense it is important for the management to walk its talk. This is illustrated in Figure
1.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
7
Figure 1: Relationship between formal and informal stories.
Formal stories indicate the company's values and direction as seen by the management.
Functions on the strategic level - the managerial level.
Informal stories contribute to sense making for the individual, and can affect the company's direction both positively and negatively.
Functions in everyday situations - on employee level. Unconscious level
Conscious level
Deg
ree
of c
onsc
ious
ness
of t
he fu
nctio
n of
sto
ries
Organizational stories serve several important functions. Informal stories have two main
purposes. The first one is that stories are creators of meaning for all employees in their
daily roles and thus also function to both maintain and revise the organizational culture,
the basic understanding of the organization. The second main purpose is to communi-
cate the organizational culture to new members of the organization. Through informal
stories new members are given meaning to otherwise ambiguous or paradoxical situa-
tions, they have experienced. Formal stories function directly to communicate and influ-
ence the organizational culture and values. Formal stories are explicit, and most often
the management communicates formal stories as seen in the example of Hewlett-
Packard below.
An example from Hewlett-Packard
An often-referred story goes about an event concerning the confidence that Hewlett-
Packard places in people as well as the company’s emphasis on innovation. It concerns
an incident that happened one weekend, when Bill Hewlett stopped by the plant to pick
up a microscope and found that the storage bins were locked up (Nymark, 2000: 133).
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
8
The legend has it that he smashed open the latch, took what he needed, and left a note
saying that the bins should always be kept open to encourage workers to take home
equipment for experiments. The incident and the peculiarities of the open store labora-
tory policy are later recalled as:
“The faith that HP has in its people is conspicuously in evidence in the cor-porate ‘open lab stock’ policy that a few of our students encountered in theSanta Rosa division. The lab stock area is where the electrical and me-chanical components are kept. The open lab stock policy means that notonly do the engineers have free access to this equipment, but they are actu-ally encouraged to take it home for their personal use. The idea is thatwhether or not what the engineers are doing with it directly related to theproject they are working on, by fooling around with the equipment at workor at home, they will learn – and so reinforce the company’s commitment toinnovation. Legend has it that Bill visited a plant on a Saturday and foundthe lab stock area locked. He immediately went down to maintenance,grabbed a bolt cutter, and proceeded to cut the padlock off the lab stockdoor. He left a note that was found on Monday morning: ‘Don’t ever lockthis door again. Thanks, Bill’.” (Peters & Waterman, 1982: 245 in Nymark,2000: 133)
This event has been seen as an early pivotal event in the history of Hewlett-Packard,
which emphasizes explicitly that Hewlett-Packard was not going to be a company that
distrusted its employees. Furthermore, the open stock and laboratories’ policy can easily
be seen as a symbol of trust, which is a central aspect of the way that Hewlett-Packard is
managed. The open stock policy can also be seen as a symbol of the strong devotion to
innovation that Hewlett-Packard has, as well as recognition of the fact that continuous
innovation is what marks the future of the company.
The strengths of the story were later illustrated, when an interview session took place at
Hewlett-Packard at the Birkerød site in Denmark. The interviewer made inquiries into
stories that particularly can be emphasized to illustrate or underline the organizational
culture at Hewlett-Packard. The questions asked to the employees were not directly on
organizational stories, but organizational stories were the topic of the inquiry. The em-
ployee, who was interviewed, explained about: ‘some incident years back, before I was
hired, about a door that had been locked, which was broken up by a manager to illustrate
the trust that was shown the employees at HP. And the employee, who had put a lock in
good faith on the door, had been told never to do that again’ (Nymark, 2000: 171).
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
9
The original story has been used as a formal story for the management to communicate
an aspect of the organizational values. This story has now become informal, as it can be
seen in the example above, and is thus used between employees to give meaning and
understanding of everyday topics and incidents. It has developed from being a formal
story to becoming institutional practice at Hewlett-Packard worldwide. It can clearly be
seen from the history of Hewlett-Packard, and especially some of the first many years
with Hewlett and Packard in the top management, that much has been done, and even
perhaps overdramatized, in order to explain and communicate organizational values to
employees by strong examples and deliberate communication of these examples.
Organizational stories, learning and memory
Through members of the organization stories are handed over to new members and to
older members in new situations in which the re-told story is handed over. New events
affect and revise continuously the collective organizational memory. In Figure 2 the
connection of elements affecting the organizational memory is illustrated. The organiza-
tional memory can be seen as an intersubjective consensual social knowledge, which is
created, maintained and revised through the employees’ stories. Organizational stories
then can be seen as a medium for understanding and communication of organizational
knowledge.
Figure 2: Connection of elements in organizational memory
Members of theorganization
The organizationalmemory
Forgotten events;organizational unlearning
Stories
Stories
Newsignificant
events
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
10
New stories emerge, some are adjusted and some are forgotten. If a story about an event
in the organization is not re-told, it might be because the organization has developed in a
direction in which these stories about certain significant events no longer contribute to a
sense making process for the individual. These stories are eventually forgotten, and the
members of the organization, who still remember the stories, will gradually leave the
company, and thus unlearning of the organizational knowledge has commenced.
In situations, which an employee may find ambiguous or paradoxical, understanding of
the situation is communicated by colleagues in the shape of stories, with origin in the
organizational memory. Hereby meaning is attached for the individual employee to the
occurrence as previously explained.
Table 1 synthesizes the notion of organizational memory in relation to formal and in-
formal stories in perspective of learning and development.
Table 1: The role and function of organizational stories: A synthesis.
Typology: Informal stories Formal stories
Process of learning: 2. order learning 1. order learning
Function: Development Maintenance
Action: Adjustment of organiza-tional memory
Communication of organizationalvalues
In an organization the communication of the company’s values maintain the organiza-
tional memory through formal stories as illustrated by the case Hewlett-Packard. Infor-
mal stories contribute continuously to an adjustment of the organizational memory.
Through informal stories the existing values and norms, which are maintained through
the formal stories, are questioned. Thus formal and informal organizational stories’ role
in relation to 1. and 2. order learning processes can be illustrated. 1. order learning proc-
esses function to maintain the established system, while 2. order learning processes
function to develop the existing system by questioning the existing values and norms.
And thorough the learning processes information is collected, analyzed, stored, and
transferred (Popper & Lipshitz, 1998: 170).
For the individual employee formal stories function to maintain and reinforce the exist-
ing understanding of the organizational culture, while informal stories function to give
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
11
meaning to otherwise paradoxical occurrences in the organization. In this re-telling from
employee to employee the organizational memory is adjusted. Hedberg links individual
learning with organizational memory as:
”Although organizational learning occurs through individuals, it would bea mistake to conclude that organizational learning is nothing but the cu-mulative result of members’ learning. Organizations do not have brains, butthey have cognitive systems and memories. As individuals develop their per-sonalities, personal habits, and beliefs over time, organizations developworld views and ideologies. Members come and go, and leadershipchanges, but organizations’ memories preserve certain behaviors, mentalmaps, norms, and values over time.” (Hedberg, 1981: 6)
Walsh & Ungson (1991: 72) points out that in organizations ability must exist to collect
and store communicable, consensual, and integrated knowledge. Through this knowl-
edge organizational activities are integrated and coordinated. This can for example be
the transference of new knowledge throughout the system. This ability is the organiza-
tional memory. In the organizational memory lies knowledge about previous events
from the organization’s past, which can make sense in ambiguous situations for the in-
dividual employee. Thus the organizational memory functions to connect the past with
the present.
The organizational memory is a part of the culture. Schein (1990: 111, 115) underlines,
that culture is something that has to be learned. Culture is what members of the organi-
zation learn over a period of time by acting according to the problems they meet both in
the organization’s internal and external surroundings. This process of learning is thus at
the same time a behavioral, a cognitive, and an emotional process. Schein defines cul-
ture as:
”… as (a) a pattern of basic assumptions, (b) invented, discovered, or de-veloped by a given group, (c) as it learns to cope with its problems of exter-nal adaption and internal integration, (d) that has worked well enough to beconsidered valid and, therefore (e) is to be taught to new members as the (f)correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.”(Schein, 1990: 111)
Organizational culture is a network of local meaning and significance between members
of the organization (Schultz, 1990: 73). Organizational culture is a socially constructed
and meaningful reality for the members that sums up the specific way of existing in the
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
12
particular organization. However, the organizational culture must not be understood as a
static and unambiguous entity. Culture is an active, dynamic, and subjective entity that
always is undergoing changes in a forum of negotiation between members of the organi-
zation. Bruner illustrates this very well:
”… culture is constantly in process of being recreated as it is interpretedand renegotiated by its members. In this view, a culture is as much a forumfor negotiating and renegotiating meaning and for explicating action as it isa set of rules or specifications for action. Indeed, every culture maintainsspecialized institutions or occasions for intensifying this ‘forum-like’ fea-ture. Storytelling, theater, science, even jurisprudence are all techniques forintensifying this function – ways of exploring possible worlds out of thecontext of immediate need. … It is the forum aspect of a culture that gives itsparticipants a role in constantly making and remaking the culture – an ac-tive role as participants rather than as performing spectators who play outtheir canonical roles according to rule when the appropriate cues occur.”(Bruner, 1986: 123)
In an organization’s culture different levels of visibility exist (Schein, 1992: 238). The
most explicit way of getting an impression of the organization’s culture is for example
by reading the information material that is handed out to new employees, as those val-
ues, on which the organization builds its culture, lie on a deeper and more implicit level.
Through these values it is possible to come under management rhetoric about the com-
pany’s culture and how things are done in the particular company. In the deeper lying
values the organization’s culture is reflected.
Value-based management by storytelling
Value-based management is concerned with indirectly setting the conditions, under
which employees can work and develop in the organization as previously explained. Or-
ganizational stories are used to communicate organizational values and culture as well
as making sense for employees in the organization. Formal stories are communicated by
the management in order to explain organizational by ‘correct’ guidelines for behavior
in the organization to new employees as well as to keep older employees focussed on a
common picture of the organization, its values, and its vision for the future. Enduring
organizational values is important for, for instance, fast growing companies and compa-
nies in change-intensive surroundings as the high-tech industry. Enduring values creates
an important sense of stability in the organizations, while the need for direct managerial
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
13
attention is less necessary. The management can use formal stories to communicate
these values, but must be aware of ‘walking the talk’. Otherwise they will be exposed to
informal organizational stories among employees correcting the wrong image. This is a
process that continuously goes on in organizations as illustrated in figure 2.
This form of value-based management has been seen at Hewlett-Packard for decades.
Especially the founders, Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard, were most aware of the signals
they sent by their behavior and information material. Hewlett, breaking up the lock to
the inventory with a bolt cutter, is a good example, how theatrical and demonstrative be-
havior is used to create stories of small but significant events that function to communi-
cate values and culture to employees. Several of these significant events that have turned
into widely communicated stories at Hewlett-Packard have been collected (Nymark,
2000: 115-148). These stories serve to employees as examples of what the founders
have done in specific situations and from these stories the employees can deduct by
analogy what is acceptable behavior for them in other situations, as also the stories are
giving an impression of the corporate culture. The story of the inventory serves thus both
to communicate the company’s attitude to locking up material, and as well indirectly the
degree of trust, the company has to its employees, and to communicate indirectly that
innovation takes place through playing and in other informal contexts.
The strength of organizational stories as a means in value-based management is given by
the example of the interview situation at Hewlett-Packard in Birkerød. The employee
retold the morale of the inventory story as something that had happened at the site at
Birkerød. Even though the story is passed on through several employees’ re-telling and
re-interpretation, the morale, in which the organizational values lie, remains the same. It
is indifferent to the values, which are communicated in the morale, whether the event
took place at Birkerød or Palo Alto. Furthermore, the story of the locked inventory is a
formal story, that successfully has been accepted and adapted in the organizational
memory, and thus is increasingly used as an informal story. A story that gives meaning
and understanding in the every-day life for the individual employee, and become an in-
tegrated part of the organizational memory.
For companies, that find themselves in change-intensive organizational surroundings
and with highly educated employees, it might be appropriate to put more emphasis on
value-based management compared to vision management. The two managerial forms
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
14
build on the same premises, but when the management by vision management focuses
on creating and communicating a common vision for employees to identify with, the
management by value-based management focuses on creating and communicating a
common set of values, which employees need to adhere to when working in the com-
pany. It gives the employee a wide degree of freedom knowing that if the employee ad-
heres to the limits of these values, everything is basically allowed as a basic rule. The
difficulty of vision management in change-intensive surroundings is to maintain and
communicate the vision continuously to the employees as frequent as surroundings
change. This is easier done in industries and companies working on less change-
intensive markets as for instance traditional furniture manufacturing market. Vision
management is mainly externally focused whereas value-based management is internally
focused. Therefore value-based management is relevant for companies that strive on the
forefront of their industry and thus being part of creating their own future. Company vi-
sion can thus be frequently changeable, while a solid and enduring set of values is im-
portant for the employees to adhere to in their daily work.
Goal setting on both an individual and an organizational level as an
important part of value-based management
An important part of the managerial role in value-based management, as seen above, is
to communicate the corporate values by different means, which both includes the story-
telling aspect and the symbolic aspect of talking the walk and walking the talk them-
selves. However, another important side of value-based management has not been em-
phasized yet. It is the importance of a continuous goal setting and review of goals and
progress.
Again Hewlett-Packard can be used as an example. If Hewlett and Packard had only fo-
cused on communicating values, things may very well have looked very different for
Hewlett-Packard today. Hewlett-Packard has developed a highly sophisticated system
based on continuous goal setting and evaluation on both an individual and an organiza-
tional level.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
15
Goal setting on the level of the individual employee through evaluation and devel-
opment
As an example it can be advanced that Hewlett-Packard uses an evaluation system
named Personal Evaluation/Development Plan (PE/DP), which also includes a Position
Plan (DP) as a part of the Development Plan. The Position Plan ensures that the individ-
ual employee at all time is aware of the tasks of which the employee is responsible. The
PE/DP is an yearly evaluation and subsequently a development plan. Every year new
goals are set for the employee, some goals are revised, others are admitted, and the pre-
vious year is evaluated. The PE/DP system is used for evaluation and goal setting for
employees at all levels of the hierarchy, and besides fixed parts there is room left for lo-
cal adjustments if necessary. As a minimum the following items should be included: a
signature area for employee consent to the PE/DP, a list of future targets and expected
results, a list of criterions, which the employee will be evaluated on the coming year, a
summary of previous accomplishments, employee comments to last year's PE/DP, and a
development plan for next year.
In surveys Hewlett-Packard centrally follows up on the PE/DP. There are e.g. surveys
concerning the degree of success in reaching the goals set, the quality of the process to-
wards reaching the goals set, and the management's support. A number of issues con-
cerning the individual employee are also evaluated. For instance personal sale, orders,
turnover, and to which degree the management has performed the yearly PE/DP with all
subordinates. Additional examples are given in Textbox 2.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
16
Textbox 2: Issues for survey used in the PE/DP system.
In employee surveys the employees are asked whether they have a de-velopment plan and have sufficient opportunities for training. The sur-veys are also a reminder to the employees that they are responsible for their own development, and thus are prepared for the changing needs in Hewlett-Packard. In the survey it is also checked whether the man-agement is willing to discuss career development and whether it is sup-portive of the employee’s continuous development in their current job. For instance, performance factors, that the employees are measured on, are work characteristics as quality, productivity, process improvement, and customer satisfaction; job skills, which include factors as technical competence, job knowledge, planning and organization, and job satisfaction; and a job approach, which includes factors such as dependability, teamwork, initiative, flexibility, work environment, safety and security.
Based on Nymark (2000: 158-164) and Hewlett-Packard (1996).
A key element in the process is the dialogue between the employee and his/her immedi-
ate superior, which ensures that mistakes are not made in the PE/DP as well as the focus
on the employee's responsibility for meeting own goals. Prior to the meeting, the em-
ployee's superior has talked to the employee's colleagues to get an impression of the em-
ployees' personal and professional development. The employee is given a grade on a
scale from 1 to 5 at the meeting. The grade is based upon the issues mentioned above,
and prior to the meeting there has been a meeting between several managers in order to
ensure, that a grade is never given based on a single managers perspective. Also carrier
and salary are affected by the result from the personal evaluation (Nymark, 2000).
Goal setting on the level of the organization
As an example, on the organizational level Hewlett-Packard is inspired by a Total Qual-
ity Management like strategic planning system called Hoshin Planning. Basically Hoshin
Planning is a system of forms and rules for strategic formulation and implementation on
different levels in the organization. Hoshin Planning is a part of the Hoshin Kanri sys-
tem, which was originally developed to communicate corporate strategy and philosophy
to all employees in an organization.
The process focuses on the company's key activities and the system is widely used in Ja-
pan. In the Western world, however, Hewlett-Packard is one of the few leading compa-
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
17
nies, which uses Hoshin Planning, and one of Hewlett-Packard's divisions has even won
the Deming Prize by using the Hoshin Planning technique. In 1965 Bridgestone Tire re-
leased a report in which the technique, which Deming Prize winners had used, was ana-
lyzed. The technique described was called Hoshin Kanri, which origin is described in
Textbox 3.
Textbox 3: Origin of ‘Hoshin Kanri’.
Taken altogether, Hoshin Kanri means management and control of the company's direction needle or focus. The term ‘Hoshin’ is short for Hoshin Kanri.
Both the word hoshin and the word kanri can be broken into two parts. The literal translation of ho is ‘direction’, and the literal translation of shin is ‘needle’. Thus the word hoshin could be translated into ‘direction needle’. However, the most popular translation of hoshin is policy deployment. Hoshin in Japanese translates to a course, a policy, a plan, or an aim.
The first part of kanri, kan, can be translated to control or channeling. The second part, ri, can be translated to reason or logic. Kanri in Japanese translates to administration, management, control, charge of, or care for.
Nymark (2000: 155).
A Hoshin is described as a one-year plan aiming to reach goals developed by the man-
agement. The Hoshin Kanri system focuses on stepwise planning, implementing and
follow-up processes, and is used to integrate long-term goals and daily activities. It is
especially valuable in the sense that it provides an organizational flexibility, which en-
sures that managers at all levels are aware of where they stand in relation to top man-
agement strategy.
At Hewlett-Packard the Hoshin Planning system is especially valued because of its in-
herent ability to adapt a large amount of employees from all levels of the organization to
a common goal. Hoshin Planning is used to achieve Hoshin's (breakthrough objectives)
and Business Fundamentals (short-term goals). Both Hoshin's and Business Fundamen-
tals are used for goal setting on corporate, division, and group level. There can be sev-
eral Business Fundamentals every year. In 1998, for instance, there were 13 Business
Fundamentals, but it is important only to focus on a few Hoshin's at a time in order to
keep focused. Both Hoshin's and Business Fundamentals are evaluated every year. Ho-
shin's are attained through a process called Hoshin Management as shown in Textbox 4.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
18
Textbox 4: The process of Hoshin Management.
1. Determine Hoshin Hoshin is determined by the top management. Hoshin should be executed with targets and means for achieving targets. While top management is determining the hoshin, middle and line manage-ment should also determine the hoshin based on their experiences and historical data (if neces-sary) by themselves.
2. Deploy Hoshin After determining the Hoshin for each level of management, it is necessary to identify if there are hoshin relationships between the top and middle levels and the middle and line levels in the or-ganization. Deploying hoshin is called catchball. It is important for any organization to understand which targets should be achieved and how to do so. During the catchball process, it is necessary to reach the consensus for targets and means between varying levels of the organization. Since tar-gets and means will be determined individually, it is necessary and important to identify the rela-tionships between targets and means of each level and targets between the different levels of the organization.
3. Implement Hoshin After adjusting the Hoshin, the means for Hoshin should be implemented. During the implementation, each target should be measured using performance measures from the target statement. 4. Review Hoshin The performance measure in the target statement should be measured. Measurement should be performed by each level of management. Thus, from top to bottom, all members related to Hoshin should observe the performance measure for each level.
5. Adjust Hoshin
If the Hoshin target is achieved, the target value should be accordingly adjusted. Existing target values might be low or activities for the means might be highly effective. In both cases, it is sig-nificant to realize why and how the targets were achieved. The case may be that the target values do not require adjustment. It should be decided, depending on the organizational situation, if the target value needs adjustment.
Nymark (2000: 156).
Some targets are set on a five years basis and are spread in the organization through the
'catchball'-process described in Textbox 4. Every year's Hoshin's are a part of the five-
year plan and a Hoshin in one year can become a Business Fundamental the next year.
For example the two Hoshin's in 1997, 'Customer Satisfaction' and 'Our People', became
Business Fundamentals in 1998. This process is encouraged at all levels so different di-
visions can have their own individual Hoshin's besides the focus on the corporate Ho-
shin's if necessary.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
19
The Hoshin Planning system thus provides a tool for integrating long term and short-
term goals in the organization, and it is a means for integrating these corporate goals
with goal setting for the individual employee as well (Nymark, 2000).
Concluding remarks
It has thus been seen how the conditions for organizational learning are supported by an
emphasis on value-based management. It has been seen how the founders of Hewlett-
Packard have practiced value-based management for decades, and that Hewlett-Packard
even can be called a ‘learning organization’ according to the definitions laid out in the
first part of the article. Furthermore it has been seen that organizational storytelling is an
important means for the organizational culture, and that organizational storytelling is an
important underlying factor for value-based management as well as the processes that
contributes to the organizational memory through learning and unlearning.
However, a final note in relation to value-based management is of significant impor-
tance. Value-based management cannot be based on the ‘soft’ storytelling side alone. It
needs a ‘hard’ side as well to make up for the highly ‘soft’ side that has been advanced
in this article. The ‘hard’ side is continuous goal setting and evaluation.
Thus there are two important approaches that need to be advanced in order to make
value-based management work most efficiently: The ‘soft’ value and storytelling ap-
proach, and the ‘hard’ goal setting and evaluation approach. In value-based management
these two approaches complement each other and increase the possibility of higher or-
ganizational efficiency. If clear and well-communicated company values supplemented
with stories, which explain these values by providing practical examples, are given then
the employees know to a larger degree where they stand, what is allowed in the company
and what is not. Consequently the employees are able to increase decision-making on
their own when they have also been made aware of their personal goals. Thus manage-
rial involvement in everyday decision-making can be reduced significantly. This can in-
crease the ability to make decisions in the organization in less time. Less time can be
spent on managerial issues, and thus the span of control for managers can be increased,
which can lead to a reduced hierarchy. A goal-directed organization focused on a learn-
ing environment with continuous improvement and feedback might be the result.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
20
References
Barrow, M. J. & H. M. Loughlin (1992), 'Towards a learning organization', Industrialand Commercial Training, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 3-7.
Boje, D. M. (1994), 'Organizational storytelling. The struggles of pre-modern, modernand post-modern organizational learning discources', Management Learning, vol.25, no. 3, pp. 433-461.
Bruner, J. (1986), Actual minds, possible worlds, Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress.
Dogdson, M. (1993), 'Organizational learning: a review of some literatures', Organiza-tion Studies, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 375-394.
Duncan, R. B. (1974), ‘Modifications in decision structure in adapting to the environ-ment: Some implications for organizational learning’, Decision Sciences, pp. 705-725.
Eco, U. (1983), Reflections on the name of the rose, 1994 ed., London: Minerva.
Fiol, C. M. & M. A. Lyles (1985), 'Organizational learning', Academy of ManagementReview, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 803-813.
Fisher, W. (1984), ‘Narration as a human communication paradigm. The case of publicmoral agreement', Communication Monograph, vol. 51, pp. 1-22.
Garvin, D. A. (1993), 'Building a learning organization', Harvard Business Review, July-August, pp. 78-91.
Hedberg, B. (1981), 'How organizations learn and unlearn', pp. 3-27, in P. C. Nystromand W. H. Starbuck (eds.), Handbook of organizational design, vol. 1: Adapting or-ganizations to their environment, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hewlett-Packard (1996), 'HP's performance evaluation and development plan', Internalmaterial.
Hewlett-Packard (1997), 'The HP Way', Internal material.
Levitt, B. & J. G. March (1988), 'Organizational learning', Annual Review of Sociology,vol. 14, pp. 319-340.
Mitroff, I. I. & R. H. Kilmann (1976), 'On organization stories: An approach to the de-sign and analysis of organizations through myths and stories', pp. 189-207, in R. H.Kilmann, L. R. Pondy and D. Slevin (eds.), The management of organization de-sign. Strategies and implementation, New York: Elsevier North-Holland.
Morsing, M. (1995), 'Organisatorisk læring af anden orden - fra en struktur til en proces-orienteret teori om læring', pp. 1-28, section 3.15, in S. Hildebrandt (ed.), Virksom-hedens Strategi og Ledelse, København: Børsens Forlag.
Nymark, S. R. (1999), 'A study of flexibility and renewal in Danish companies', HumanResource Development International, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 59-66.
Nymark, S. R. (2000), Organizational storytelling: Creating enduring values in a high-tech company, Aarhus: Forlaget Ankerhus.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
21
Packard, D. (1995), The HP Way. How Bill Hewlett and I built our company, 1996 pa-perback ed., New York: Harper Business.
Pedler, M., T. Boydell & J. Burgoyne (1989), 'Towards the learning company', Man-agement Education and Development, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 1-8.
Peters, T. J. & R. H. Waterman, Jr. (1982), In search of excellence. Lessons from Amer-ica's best-run companies, Cambridge, MA: Harper & Row.
Popper, M. & R. Lipshitz (1998), 'Organizational learning mechanisms. A structural andcultural approach to organizational learning', Journal of Applied Behavioral Sci-ence, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 161-179.
Schein, E. H. (1990), 'Organizational culture', American Psychologist, vol. 45, no. 2, pp.109-119.
Schein, E. H. (1992), 'Coming to a new awareness of organizational culture', pp. 237-253, in G. Salaman (ed.), Human Resource Strategies, London: Sage Publications.
Schultz, M. (1990), Kultur i organisationer. Funktion eller symbol, København: Han-delshøjskolens Forlag.
Stata, R. (1989), 'Organizational learning - the key to management innovation', SloanManagement Review, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 63-74.
Walsh, J. P. & G. R. Ungson (1991), 'Organizational memory', Academy of ManagementReview, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 57-91.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
Danish Research Unit for I ndustrial Dynamics
The Research Programme
The DRUID-research programme is organised in 3 different research themes:
- The firm as a learning organisation
- Competence building and inter-firm dynamics
- The learning economy and the competitiveness of systems of innovation
In each of the three areas there is one strategic theoretical and one central empiricaland policy oriented orientation.
Theme A: The firm as a learning organisation
The theoretical perspective confronts and combines the resource-based view (Penrose,1959) with recent approaches where the focus is on learning and the dynamiccapabilities of the firm (Dosi, Teece and Winter, 1992). The aim of this theoreticalwork is to develop an analytical understanding of the firm as a learning organisation.
The empirical and policy issues relate to the nexus technology, productivity,organisational change and human resources. More insight in the dynamic interplaybetween these factors at the level of the firm is crucial to understand internationaldifferences in performance at the macro level in terms of economic growth andemployment.
Theme B: Competence building and inter-firm dynamics
The theoretical perspective relates to the dynamics of the inter-firm division of labourand the formation of network relationships between firms. An attempt will be made todevelop evolutionary models with Schumpeterian innovations as the motor driving aMarshallian evolution of the division of labour.
The empirical and policy issues relate the formation of knowledge-intensive regionaland sectoral networks of firms to competitiveness and structural change. Data on thestructure of production will be combined with indicators of knowledge and learning.IO-matrixes which include flows of knowledge and new technologies will bedeveloped and supplemented by data from case-studies and questionnaires.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
Theme C: The learning economy and the competitiveness of systems of innovation.
The third theme aims at a stronger conceptual and theoretical base for new conceptssuch as 'systems of innovation' and 'the learning economy' and to link these conceptsto the ecological dimension. The focus is on the interaction between institutional andtechnical change in a specified geographical space. An attempt will be made tosynthesise theories of economic development emphasising the role of science based-sectors with those emphasising learning-by-producing and the growing knowledge-intensity of all economic activities.
The main empirical and policy issues are related to changes in the local dimensions ofinnovation and learning. What remains of the relative autonomy of national systemsof innovation? Is there a tendency towards convergence or divergence in thespecialisation in trade, production, innovation and in the knowledge base itself whenwe compare regions and nations?
The Ph.D.-programme
There are at present more than 10 Ph.D.-students working in close connection to theDRUID research programme. DRUID organises regularly specific Ph.D-activitiessuch as workshops, seminars and courses, often in a co-operation with other Danishor international institutes. Also important is the role of DRUID as an environmentwhich stimulates the Ph.D.-students to become creative and effective. This involvesseveral elements:
- access to the international network in the form of visiting fellows and visits at thesister institutions
- participation in research projects- access to supervision of theses- access to databasesEach year DRUID welcomes a limited number of foreign Ph.D.-students who wantsto work on subjects and project close to the core of the DRUID-research programme.
External projects
DRUID-members are involved in projects with external support. One major projectwhich covers several of the elements of the research programme is DISKO; acomparative analysis of the Danish Innovation System; and there are several projectsinvolving international co-operation within EU's 4th Framework Programme. DRUIDis open to host other projects as far as they fall within its research profile. Specialattention is given to the communication of research results from such projects to awide set of social actors and policy makers.
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
DRUID Working Papers
96-1 Lundvall, Bengt-Åke: The Social Dimension of the Learning Economy.(ISBN 87-7873-000-7)
96-2 Foss, Nicolai J.: Firms, Incomplete Contracts and Organizational Learning.(ISBN 87-7873-001-5)
96-3 Dalum, Bent and Villumsen, Gert: Are OECD Export SpecialisationPatterns Sticky?’ Relations to the Convergence-Divergence Debate. (ISBN87-7873-002-3)
96-4 Foss, Nicolai J: Austrian and Post-Marshallian Economics: The BridgingWork of George Richardson. (ISBN 87-7873-003-1)
96-5 Andersen, Esben S., Jensen, Anne K., Madsen, Lars and Jørgensen,Martin: The Nelson and Winter Models Revisited: Prototypes for Computer-Based Reconstruction of Schumpeterian Competition. (ISBN 87-7873-005-8)
96-6 Maskell, Peter: Learning in the village economy of Denmark. The role ofinstitutions and policy in sustaining competitiveness. (ISBN 87-7873-006-6)
96-7 Foss, Nicolai J. & Christensen, Jens Frøslev: A Process Approach toCorporate Coherence. (ISBN 87-7873-007-4)
96-8 Foss, Nicolai J.: Capabilities and the Theory of the Firm. (ISBN 87-7873-008-2)
96-9 Foss, Kirsten: A transaction cost perspective on the influence of standards onproduct development: Examples from the fruit and vegetable market. (ISBN87-7873-009-0)
96-10 Richardson, George B.: Competition, Innovation and Increasing Returns.(ISBN 87-7873-010-4)
96-11 Maskell, Peter: Localised low-tech learning in the furniture industry.(ISBN 87-7873-011-2)
96-12 Laursen, Keld: The Impact of Technological Opportunity on the Dynamicsof Trade Performance. (ISBN 87-7873-012-0)
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
96-13 Andersen, Esben S.: The Evolution of an Industrial Sector with a VaryingDegree of Roundaboutness of Production. (ISBN 87-7873-013-9)
96-14 Dalum, Bent, Laursen, Keld & Villumsen, Gert: The Long TermDevelopment of OECD Export Specialisation Patterns: De-specialisation and“Stickiness”. (ISBN 87-7873-014-7)
96-15 Foss, Nicolai J.: Thorstein B. Veblen: Precursor of the Competence-BasedApproach to the Firm. (ISBN 87-7873-015-5)
96-16 Gjerding, Allan Næs: Organisational innovation in the Danish privatebusiness sector. (ISBN 87-7873-016-3)
96-17 Lund, Reinhard & Gjerding, Allan Næs: The flexible company Innovation,work organisation and human ressource management. (ISBN 87-7873-017-1)
97-1 Foss, Nicolai J.: The Resource-Based Perspective: An Assessment andDiagnosis of Problems. (ISBN 87-7873-019-8)
97-2 Langlois, Richard N. & Foss, Nicolai J.: Capabilities and Governance: theRebirth of Production in the Theory of Economic Organization. (ISBN 87-7873-020-1)
97-3 Ernst, Dieter: Partners for the China Circle? The Asian Production Networksof Japanese Electronics Firms. (ISBN 87-7873-022-8)
97-4 Richardson, George B.: Economic Analysis, Public Policy and the SoftwareIndustry. (ISBN 87-7873-023-6)
97-5 Borrus, Michael & Zysman, John: You Don’t Have to Be A Giant: HowThe Changing Terms of Competition in Global Markets are Creating NewPossibilities For Danish Companies. (ISBN 87-7873-024-4)
97-6 Teubal, Morris.: Restructuring and Embeddeness of Business Enterprises-Towards an Innovation System Perspective on Diffusion Policy. (ISBN 87-7873-025-2)
97-7 Ernst, Dieter & Guerrieri, Paolo: International Production Networks andChanging Trade Patterns in East Asia: The case of the Electronics Industry.(ISBN 87-7873-026-0)
97-8 Lazaric, Nathalie & Marengo, Luigi: Towards a Characterisation of Assetsand Knowledge Created in Technological Agreements: Some evidence fromthe automobile-robotics sector. (ISBN 87-7873-027-9)
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
97-9 Ernst, Dieter.: High-Tech Competition Puzzles. How Globalization AffectsFirm Behavior and Market Structure in the Electronics Industry. (ISBN 87-7873-028-7)
97-10 Foss, Nicolai J.: Equilibrium vs Evolution in the Resource-BasedPerspective: The Conflicting Legacies of Demsetz and Penrose. (ISBN 87-7873-029-5)
97-11 Foss, Nicolai J.: Incomplete Contracts and Economic Organisation: BrianLoasby and the Theory of the firm. (ISBN 87-7873-030-9)
97-12 Ernst, Dieter & Lundvall, Bengt-Åke: Information Technology in TheLearning Economy – Challenges for Developing Countries. (ISBN 87-7873-031-7)
97-13 Kristensen, Frank Skov (p): A study of four organisations in differentcompetitive environments. (ISBN 87-7873-032-5)
97-14 Drejer, Ina, (p) Kristensen, Frank Skov (p) & Laursen, Keld (p): Studiesof Clusters as a Basis for Industrial and Technology Policy in the DanishEconomy. (ISBN 87-7873-033-3)
97-15 Laursen, Keld (p) & Drejer, Ina (p): Do Inter-sectoral Linkages Matter forInternational Export Specialisation? (ISBN 87-7873-034-1)
97-16 Lundvall, Bengt-Åke & Kristensen, Frank Skov (p): Organisationalchange, innovation and human resource Development as a response toincreased competition. (ISBN 87-7873-036-8)
98-1 Præst, Mette (p): An Empirical Model of Firm Behaviour: A dynamicApproach to Competence Accumulation and Strategic Behaviour. (ISBN 87-7873-037-6)
98-2 Ducatel, Ken: Learning and skills in the Knowledge Economy. (ISBN 87-7873-038-4)
98-3 Ernst, Dieter: What Permits Small Firms to Compete in High-TechIndustries? Inter-Organizational Knowledge Creation in the TaiwaneseComputer Industry. (ISBN 87-7873-039-2)
98-4 Christensen, Jens Frøslev: The Dynamics of the Diversified Corporationand the Role of Central Management of Technology. (ISBN 87-7873-040-6)
98-5 Valente, Marco (p): Laboratory for Simulation Development. (ISBN 87-7873-041-4)
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
98-6 Valente, Marco (p): Technological Competition: a Qualitative Product LifeCycle. (ISBN 87-7873-042-2)
98-7 Lam, Alice: The Social Embeddedness of Knowledege: Problems ofKnowledge Sharing and Organisational Learning in International High-Technology Ventures. (ISBN 87-7873-043-0)
98-8 Jørgensen, Kenneth M. (p): Information Technology and Change in DanishOrganizations. (ISBN 87-7873-044-9)
98-9 Andersen, Esben Sloth: Escaping Satiation in an Evolutionary Model ofStructural economic Dynamics. (ISBN 87-7873-045-7)
98-10 Foss, Kirsten: Technological Interdependencies, Specialization andCoordination: A Property Rights Perspective on The Nature of the Firm.(ISBN 87-7873-046-5)
98-11 Andersen, Poul H: Organizing International Technological Collaboration inSubcontractor Relationships. An Investigation of the Knowledge-StickynessProblem. (ISBN 87-7873-047-3)
98-12 Nymark, Søren (p): Billeder af strategi i forandringsrige organisatoriskeomgivelser: 3 cases fra DISKO studierne. (ISBN 87-7873-048-1)
98-13 Andersen, Esben Sloth: The Evolution of the Organisation of Industry.(ISBN 87-7873-050-3)
98-14 Foss, Kirsten & Foss, Nicolai J.: The Market Process and The Firm:Toward a Dynamic Property Rights Perspective. (ISBN 87-7873-051-1)
98-15 Lorenz, Edward: Societal Effects and the Transfer of Business Practices toBritain and France. (ISBN 87-7873-053-8)
98-16 Ernst, Dieter: Catching-Up, Crisis and Industrial Upgrading. EvolutionaryAspects of Technological Learning in Korea's Electronics Industry. (ISBN87-7873-054-6)
98-17 Kaisla, Jukka (p): The Market Process and the Emergence of the Firm:Some Indications of Entrepreneurship Under Genuine Uncertainty. (ISBN87-7873-055-4)
98-18 Laursen, Keld (p): Do Export and Technological Specialisation PatternsCo-evolve in Terms of Convergence or Divergence?: Evidence from 19OECD Countries, 1971-1991. (ISBN 87-7873-056-2)
98-19 Foss, Nicolai J.: Firms and the Coordination of Knowledge: Some AustrianInsights. (ISBN 87-7873-057-0)
98-20 Mahnke, Volker (p) & Aadne, John Harald: Process of Strategic Renewal,Competencies, and the Management of Speed. (ISBN 87-7873-058-9)
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
98-21 Lorenzen, Mark (p): Information, cost learning, and trust. Lessons form co-operation and higher-order capabilities amongst geographically proximatefirms. (ISBN 87-7873-059-7)
98-22 Lam, Alice: Tacit Knowledge, Organisational Learning and Innovation: ASocietal Perspective. (ISBN 87-7873-060-0)
98-23 Lund, Reinhard: Organizational and innovative flexibility mechanisms andtheir impact upon organizational effectiveness. (ISBN 87-7873-061-9)
98-24 Christensen, Jesper Lindgaard & Drejer, Ina (p): Finance and InnovationSystem or Chaos. (ISBN 87-7873-062-7)
98-25 Laursen, Keld (p): How Structural Change Differs, and Why it Matters (forEconomic Growth) (ISBN 87-7873-063-5)
98-26 Holmén, Magnus & Jacobsson, Staffan: A method for identifying actors ina knowledge based cluser. (ISBN 87-7873-064-3)
98-27 Richardson, G. B.: Production, Planning and Prices. (ISBN 87-7873-065-1)
98-28 Foss, Nicolai J.: Austrian Economics and Game Theory: a PreliminaryMethodological Stocktaking. (ISBN 87-7873-067-8)
98-29 Foss, Nicolai J. & Mahnke, Volker (p): Strategy Research and the MarketProcess Perspective. (ISBN 87-7873-068-6)
98-30 Laursen, Keld (p): Revealed Comparative Advantage and the Alternativesas Measures of International Specialisation. (ISBN 87-7873-069-4)
99-1 Lorenz, E.: Organisationaal Innovation, Governance Structure andInnovative Capacity In British and French Industry. (ISBN 87-7873-070-8)
99-2 Ernst, Dieter: Responses to the Crisis: Constraints to a Rapid TradeAdjustment in East Asia's Electronics Industry. (ISBN 87-7873-071-6)
99-3 Foss, N. J. : Understanding Leadership: A Coordination Theory. (ISBN 87-7873-072-4)
99-4 Foss, K & Foss, N. J: Understanding Ownership: Residual Rights of Controland Appropriable Control Rights. ( ISBN 87-7873-073-2)
99-5 Foss, K & Foss, N. J: Organizing Economic Experiments: The role ofFirms. (ISBN 87-7873-075-9)
99-6 Jørgensen Kenneth. M. (p) : The Meaning og Local Knowledges. (ISBN87-7873-076-7)
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
99-7 Foss, N. J.: Capabilities, Confusion, and the Costs of Coordination: OnSome Problems in Recent Research On Inter-Firm Relations. (ISBN87-7873-077-5)
99-8 Lund, Reinhard: Tillidsrepræsentantsystemet og defleksiblevirksomhedsformer. Juli 1999. (ISBN887-7873-078-3)
99-9 Nymark, Søren: Organisatorisk læring gennem den værdibaseredeorganisations fortællinger. (ISBN 87-7873-079-1)
99-10 Laursen, K. & Meliciani, V.: The importance of technology based inter-sectoral linkages for market share dynamics. (ISBN 87-7873-080-5)
99-11 Laursen, K., Mahnke, V., Vejrup-Hansen, P.: Firm growth from aknowlegde structure perspective. ( ISBN 87-7873-081-3)
99-12 Lundvall, Bengt-Åke, Christensen, Jesper. L.: Extending and Deepeningthe Analysis of Innovation Systems - with Emperical Illustrations from theDISCO-project. (ISBN 87-7873-082-1)
00-1 Llerena, Patrick & Oltra, Vanessa: Diversity of innovative strategy as asource technological performance. (ISBN 87-7873-085-6)
00-2 Llerena, Patrick & Mireille Matt: Technology policy and cooperation:A paradigmatic approach. (ISBN 87-7873-086-4)
00-3 Cusmano, Lucia: Technology Policy and Co-operative R&D: the role ofrelational research capacity. (ISBN 87-7873-087-2)
00-4 Mikkola, Juliana Hsuan: Modularization assessment of productarchitecture. (ISBN87-7873-088-0)
00-5 Yvrande, Anne: The new British railways structure: A transaction costeconomics analysis. (ISBN87-7873-089-9)
00-6 Dijk, Machiel van &Nomaler Önder: Technological diffusion patterns andtheir effects on industrial dynamics. (ISBN 87-7873-090-2)
00-7 Storper, Michael & Chen, Yun-chung with De Paolis, Fernando: TheEffects of Globalization on Location of Industries in the OECD andEuropean Union (ISBN87-7873-091-0)
00-8 Sanders, Mark & Weel, Bas ter : Skill-Biased Technical Change:Theoretical Concepts, Empirical Problems and a Survey of the Evidence(ISBN87-7873-092-9)
00-9 Tomlinson, Mark: Innovation surveys: A researcher’s perspective(ISBN87-7873-093-7)
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.
00-10 Nymark, Søren: Value-based management in learning organizations through'hard' and 'soft' managerial approaches: The case of Hewlett-Packard(ISBN87-7873-094-5)
Information for subscribers.
Subscription price for 1997 is 600 DKr (about 20 papers). The rate for single issues is40 DKr. It is possible to make a commitment to an exchange of papers from relateddepartments or research teams. All correspondence concerning the DRUID WorkingPapers should be send to.
Jonna JacobsenFibigerstræde 4
DK-9220 Aalborg OETel. 45 96 35 82 65Fax. 45 98 15 60 13
E-mail: [email protected]
Lukman Arhami. Perencanaan strategi ..., FT UI., 2008.