1 Project Management Project Management and Case Study 软件项目管理和案例分析.

1Project Management

Project Management and Case Study

软件项目管理和案例分析

2Project Management

Class Scope:This class -• Teaches the fundamentals, tools and concepts of

project management.• Discusses the role of the project manager and team

members in managing a project• Practices the fundamentals of project management

Grade:

Case Study 30%

Class Presentation & Participation 20%

Exercises 20%

Final Exercise 30%

3Project Management

Class Objectives:At the end of this class, you will be able to -• Describe roles and responsibilities of project

managers across the project life cycle• Define and develop the foundations of a project plan,

including the project requirements, work breakdown structure, cost, schedule and other resources

• Manage and control project against the baseline• Close out a project effectively

4Project Management

Unit 1: Introduction to Project Management

5Project Management


What is a Project?• A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a

unique product or service

Project BProject A Project C

Program X

Project EProject D

Program Y

Ongoing Business Operation

6Project Management


What is a Project? In some organization, any task or duty is considered a

project that requires someone to manage it.• Projects are temporary • They have unique end results• Gathering project information

7Project Management


Project Life Cycle• Projects are usually divided into phases , these

phases make up the project life cycle

Initiation Planning Implementation Closure

8Project Management


Five Interacting Processes Make up a ProjectInitiation: authorizing the project Planning: defining and refining objectives and selecting the best of the

alternative courses of action. Execution: coordinating the people and other resources to carry out the

planControlling: ensuring that project objectives are met by monitoring and

measuring progress to identify variances from the plan so that corrective action can be taken

Closeout: formalizing acceptance of the project and bringing it to an orderly end

9Project Management


Motorola M-Gates

10Project Management

Unit 1: Introduction to Project Management Motorola M-Gates



Project Management• The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and

techniques to project activities to meet the project requirement

• Project management helps ensure success• The project management is the ability to administrator a

series of tasks resulting in a desired goal



The Triple Constraint

ScopeC

ostTi

me



The Triple Constraint• Scope – sum of products and services to be provide

as a project• Cost – means the money, labor, equipment, and other

resources needed to complete the project• Time – refers to the schedule, or, in other words, how

long it takes to complete the project



Managing Project Using the Triple Constraint

• Balance the three “side” to complete project • Combination of art and science• Ongoing effort to define and refine project

The concept of the triple constraint can be used early in the planning stage to understand the need to consider each factor and how it relates to the particular project. It can also be used during the course of the project to deal with changes, contingencies, and other unforeseeable issues that may arise



People Involved in Projects• Project Stakeholders • Project Team Members• Project Managers



Stakeholders• Individuals and organizations that are actively

involved in the project, or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected as a result of project execution or project completion



Examples of Stakeholders• The organization’s leadership (the head of the department that is

expected to benefit from an internal project)• The client (the bank that has hired a software development firm to

design and build an on-line banking system)• The client’s end user (the customers with bank account who will use

that on-line banking system after it is built)• Partners in accomplishing the project (vendors and subcontractors who

are working for a prime contractor on any kind of project)• Special interest groups (environmentalists with concerns about how a

new building may affect land use)• Government regulators (the Food and Drug Administration in relation to

a pharmaceutical project, or state transportation department in relation to a highway project)



Key Stakeholders-• Ones get the output from project • Ones provide inputs to the project• Ones have the oversight responsibility• Ones have other related responsibilities• Ones reap the reward• Ones suffer the penaltiesIt is the project manager’s responsibility to cast large and broad net to

consider a project’s stakeholders and their interest because it is better to “over identify” stakeholders than to leave some out…



Project Team Members• Key players in the project • Participate project planning and managing• Ones have the oversight responsibility

The definition of the project team members is:

The people who report either directly or indirectly to the project manager



Project Manager Role and Responsibilities• Explicit role: managing the project • Related role: planning, leading, negotiating,

communicating, running interference, prioritizing, monitoring …

• The project manager must get other people to do what his or her project needs, often with limited authority



The Project Manager Should Use “People Skills” throughout the Project Life Cycle

Within the organization, this entails –• supplying information to the boss or others• getting resources from other divisions• coordinating with other projects doing work for the same

client



“People Skills” - ContinueWith the project team, it means -• supervising• leading• providing resource• protecting the team members so they can accomplish

the project



“People Skills” - ContinueWith the client, it means –• communicating project status,• managing expectations• ensuring that the client is and remains satisfied



Unit 1 Key messages:

• A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service

• Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques of project activities to meet project requirement

• The triple constraint of time, cost and scope underlies every project• The phase of a project (which often very by type of project) make up the

project life cycle• Internal and external factors influence every project• Five interactive processes make up a project: initiation, planning,

execution, control, and close out• The project manager uses a variety of competencies to make sure the

project is headed in the right direction


Unit 2: Project Initiation



Senior Management• “Senior Management” are your bosses

Program managers

Division heads

Vice presidents

Managing partners

It is important to remember that the structure and culture of the organization affect the project manager’s relations with senior management. Relations may be very formal and hierarchical, very informal, or somewhere in between.



Understand Senior Management’s Role• They have authority and power• Usually, they select and initiate projects• As a project manager, ask yourself –

What do they need from me?

What do I need from them?

Once the project has been approved by senior management, the project manger must continue to work with senior management and keep them informed of the project’s progress. Senior management’s role in the project is that of support, not implementation.



Why Projects Originate• Product obsolescence• Competitive forces• Client requirements• Employee suggestions• Other sourcesAlthough there are certainly exception to the rule, the project

manager is not usually involved in this decision. Nevertheless, the project manager should understand why the project is being launched in order to ensure that the result delivered meets the needs for which it was started.



Case Study 1:

Initiate a new Project



Project ResearchResearch to find the best project that fits business needs

How to research? Here is a six-step method that might work:

1. Define the purpose of the research in writing

2. Determine what resources will be used during this research

3. Delegate

4. Start researching

5. Organize and document

6. Evaluate and do more research



Project SelectionBefore launching any project, the initiators must decide whether the

project should be undertaken. This often means choosing among more than one potential project.

• Selection practices are unique to each organization• Best practices encourage objectivity• Project selection is rarely purely quantitative• Selection should align with an organization’s strategic

intent



Project Selection ToolsQuantitative methods and qualitative considerations enter

into project selection• Quantitative Tools

Benefit-cost ratio (BCR)

Present value (PV) and net present value (NPV)

Payback period

Return on Investment (ROI)

• Qualitative FactorsStakeholder bias

Organizational fit

Risk analysis



Qualitative Factors• The bias, preferences, or aversions of key stakeholders such as

customers, shareholders, employees, and the managers themselves are difficult to avoid, so they must be recognized.

• Organizational fit addresses whether the project fits with what the organization wants to accomplish, what the organization is able to undertake, and whether the project will further the organization's strategic mission.

• The organization should do a preliminary risk analysis to decide whether the project is worth undertaking despite its associated risk.



Quantitative Tools:

Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)A comparative analysis of benefit vs. costs:

benefit /cost

Example:• Subcontractor A will charge $1,500 (cost) and generate

$3,000 worth of work (benefit)• Subcontractor B will charge $2,000 (cost) and generate

$4,500 worth of work (benefit)

Which has higher BCR?



Benefit Types*• Savings – How much will this save the company if need is

met? Time equals money. Headcount reduction? Will this time saved be reallocated to value-add activities?

• Revenue – How much incremental revenue will the company receive if the need is met? How much revenue will the company lose if the need is not met?

• Avoidance – Similar to Savings except currently not spending. How much will the company avoid spending if need is met? What are the penalties & fees the company will avoid if need is met?

*In year of implement (year 0) and over the next 3 years.



Cost Equation*

Customer Requirements

Alternatives

Recommendation

Budget

Risk

Used to derive…

Select best…

Plus

= Cost

*Estimate effort & other costs to derive

*Initial implementation and recurring costs for next 3 years.



Quantitative Tools:

Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)Like any mathematical formula, BCR has its limitations. It

is important to remember that like profit margin, BCR only focuses on the ratio and not on the volume of work involved.



Quantitative Tools - continue

Present Value (PV)What is the value today of future cash flow

PV = FV / (1 + i)n

Where –

PV = present value of money

FV = future value

i = interest rate or internal discount rate

n = number of time periods from today




Present Value (PV)This formula shows that the earlier you bring money into your

organization, the more it is worth to you. The later you can spend it, then the less it costs you.

Example: a client wants to repay your invoice of $1,000 by waiting 2 years and paying you a $250 later fee for a total of $1,250. If you could make 15% annually on the cash you receive:

PV = FV / (1 + i)n = $1,250 / (1 + 0.15)2 = $945

Which means you lose $55 in present value under the proposed deal.




Net Present Value (NPV)Net present value logic looks at both the inflow and outflow

of money overtime

NPV = PVbenefit – PVinvestments

Both over the flow of timeNPV is used to compare revenues to cost in arriving at the value of a

project or project component, it can also be used to compare the present value of any two cash flow projections.




Payback Period• Making money is not only goal of the project• How quickly you make the money is also critical• How long it takes to get your investment back

Invested up-front Eventual profits

Year1 Year2 Year3 Year4Year5

$10,000 0 3,000 4,000 6,000 6,000

When is the payback point?




Return on Investment (ROI)• A performance measure used to evaluate the efficiency of

an investment or to compare the efficiency of a number of different investment.

• To calculate ROI, the benefit (return) of an investment is divided by the cost of the investment; the result is expressed as a percentage or a ratio.

ROI = (Benefit of Investment) / (Cost of Investment)

Example: $500,000/$50,000 = 10%

Benefit of Investment = Gain from Investment – Cost of Investment



Risk AnalysisA project risk has three defining characteristics:• It is a definable event• There is a probability the event will occur• There is a consequence to the project if the event occurs



Example:A proposal to introduce a new product line to replace overstocked

product line.

Event: Market prediction of the product, Best, Good, Fair, Poor

Proposed method:

M1: Stop producing the old products, change the old line to the new one -- low cost

M2: Rebuild the old product line to produce new products, expanding the product line, outsource some parts to 3rd party vendors

M3: Keep the old product line, build a new product line – high cost

The market analysis results showed the probabilities of these events:

Best Good Fair Poor

30% 40% 20% 10%



Example - continue

NPV Best Good Fair Poor

Methods 30% 40% 20% 10%

M1 $1400K $1000K $100K -$800K

M2 $2100K $1500K $500K -$2000K

M3 $2400K $1800K -$500K -$5000K

Prob

Events

The net expectation value:

M1: $760K; M2: $1130K; M3: $840K

M2 is the best selection



Start the ProjectThe right start -

Objectives

Needs

Functional Requirement

Technical Requirement



Needs Assessment• Needs exist on a variety of levels• Projects are often built on conflicting needs• Needs should be separated from wants• Customers often do not actually know, or understand,

their needs• Needs are accessed through document review,

interviews, surveys, and auditsSenior management must understand and balance or prioritize the

conflicting needs, often working with customers to help them sort out what they really need. The better the conflicts are addressed up front, the easier management of the project will be.



Formulating Good ObjectivesWhat is Objective? • An understanding between someone who needs

something and someone who can provide• Exists at all levels (corporate, project, work team,

specific task)• Uses the SMART model

S = Specific

M = Measurable

A = Achievable

R = Rewarding

T = Time-constrained

51

Formulating Good Objectives - continue• Start with S, M, T components in that order:

• Ask questions associated with A and R- Do we have required skill, resource and time?- Do the project add value to our organization or individuals?

(Original: Develop a database to monitor office vacation time requests)

Project Management


Develop and implement a database for company A that captures and prints weekly

employee vacation schedule requests by July 1, 2006

The “Specific” component

The “Measurable” component

The “Time-constraint” component



Requirements: Functional and TechnicalFunctional requirement- • What the customer need to have happen• Derived from the objectives

Technical requirement-• What the project team develops to meet the functional

requirement



Technical RequirementsThe development of technical requirements can go astray in

two ways

1. Project team should not just rewording the function requirement into techno-speak. Instead, the team member should be thinking about technical solution to the customer’s requirements.

2. The customers should not be coming up with the technical solution. That is one of the main reasons they hired the project team.



Requirement Gathering Techniques

- Prototyping • Dynamic development of requirement• Customer defines general requirement• Team builds prototypes, or models, to help customer

clarify its requirement• Rules still must exist, or chaos resultsPrototyping works well in fluid, highly conceptual efforts, and it

promotes the organization and the customer to examine and review a set or iterations. It is commonly used in software development or other instance where a picture is worth a thousand words.



Requirement Gathering Techniques

- Interview • Understand Customers’ “Needs”• Translate “Needs” to Customer Requirement

- JAD – Joint Application Development• Used when a project has a higher priority and a mixed skill set is

required

- Use Cases• Used to capture functional requirement of systems and systems-of-

systems

• Each use case provides one or more scenarios that convey how the

system should interact



Project Charter• Reference for authority for the future of the project• Written agreement between the senior management,

project manager, and the function managers• Preliminary delineation of roles and responsibilities

The project charter is useful for such projects as moving an organization to a new location, installing a large-scale management information system, going to new technology, and merging 2 companies.The project manager needs special rights in these kinds of projects.



Project Charter Fundamental• Set boundaries• Be as concise as possible• Identify name and titles for responsibility• Map out the flow of documentation and information in

advance• Establish expectations for change control, budget and

status report

Tool 1: Project Chart



Project Requirement Document (PRD)• Document the project requirements• The project team draft the PRD and senior

management/stakeholders approve it• Used to build consensus among key stakeholdersEvery project needs a requirement. It creates a sense of responsibility for

the project manager, a sense of ownership for the sponsor, and a sense of teamwork for the project team

Tool 2: Project Requirement Document



Case Study 2:Creating A Project Requirement Document and Project Charter



Unit 2 Key messages:• Senior management usually selects and initiates a project• Project originate for many reasons, from product obsolescence to client

requirement to individual innovation• Needs must be assessed, objectives set, and functional and technical

requirement• Customers define functional requirements• The project team develops the technical requirements• Quantitative methods and qualitative considerations enter into project

selection• A project charter spells out the roles and responsibilities of the project

manger, key members of the project team, and input from other organizational agencies

• A project requirement document defines the work to be done• A good project definition is required before detailed planning can begin


Unit 3: Project Planning



Project Planning• Is the heart of project management• Involves both core and facilitating processes• Core processes include project scope, scheduling, cost

and resource planning• Facilitating processes include risk, procurement,

communications and quality planning



Project Success is Based on:• Good project requirement• Good project planning• Good project management



Core Project Team• A core group of key people

Not the whole team

Not senior management

• Self-direct and interactive• Project management tip: get right people on the core

teamExample for an IT project, core project team may consist of a project

manager, a software engineer, a hardware engineer, and a finance expert



Scope Planning• Scope: the sum of the products and services to be

provided as a project• Scope planning: the process of progressively elaborating

and documenting the project work…• Scope was outlined in the project initiation phase and

documented in the PRD.• The planning stage is time to focus on project detailsThe scope statement that results from the scope planning process will be

the basis for the work breakdown structure (WBS)



Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)• Definition: “a deliverable-oriented grouping of project

elements that organizes and defines the total work scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project work”

• An alternative definition could be: “a task-oriented grouping of project elements that organizes and defines the total work scope of the project in a structured way that breaks down project into work packages”

• WBS is the family tree of the product to be delivered



Benefits of a WBS• Identifies all the work necessary to accomplish the

objectives; and refine the objectives• Identifies only the work necessary• Identifies specific work packages for estimating and

assigning work• Provides a structure for measuring success• Clarifies responsibilities• Forces detailed planning and documentation• Builds team member commitment



Uses of a WBS• Planning and budgeting• Funding• Estimating• Scheduling• Performance measurement• Configuration management• Integrated logical support• Test and performance evaluation



WBS Components

Project Scope

Phases

Work Unit

Tasks



Key WBS Terms – from PMBOK • Work package (Task)

• Lowest level of the WBS• Level work is assigned and monitored• Basic level of addressing schedules, costing, and

resources needed• Cost account

• Typically a level above the work package• Level of management reporting



WBS ModelsGraphical Diagram 1.0 Management

Information Software System

1.1 need Assessment

1.2 Specific Development

1.3 System engineering

1.2.1 Develop preliminary

software spec

1.2.2 Develop detail software

spec

1.2.3 Develop preliminary

hardware spec

1.3.5 Develop preferred system

architecture

1.3.4 Develop technical & cost-

effective approach

1.3.2 Develop alternate hardware

approaches

1.3.1 Develop alternate software

approaches

1.1.1 Measure state of current

system

1.1.2 Determine future capability

requirements

1.1.3 Develop alternative approaches

1.1.4 Develop System

Requirements

1.3.3 Develop cost estimate for each

approach



WBS ModelsThe graphic format is good for showing the relative levels of

the work and how smaller components roll up into large ones. For presentation purpose, this format also facilitates adjusting the depth of details that is appropriate for various audiences.



WBS ModelsIndented Format:1.0 Management Information Software System

1.1 need Assessment1.1.1 Measure state of current system

1.1.2 Determine future capability requirements

1.1.3 Develop alternative approaches1.1.4 Develop System Requirements

1.2 Specific Development1.2.1 Develop preliminary software specifications1.2.2 Develop detail software specifications1.2.3 Develop preliminary hardware specifications

1.3 System Engineering1.3.1 Develop alternate software approaches1.3.2 Develop alternate hardware approaches1.3.3 Develop cost estimate for each approach1.3.4 Develop technical & cost-effective approach1.3.5 Develop preferred system architecture



WBS ModelsIndented Format:

The indented format offers some advantages. It is easier to including project details, it is easy to load into major software tools such as Microsoft Project, and it is easy to edit. It lends itself to printed reports and computerized monitoring.



Other Methods• Top-Down

- Uses deductive reasoning; it starts with general and move to the very specific.

• Bottom-up- Moves from very specific towards to the general- Is ideal for brainstorming for a solution to a problem



Build a WBS (Top-Down)1. Understand the purpose of the project

2. Establish the major breakout segments of the work

3. Break down these large pieces (segments) into the next level of components

4. Break down each component into subcomponents

5. Continue down to the level where you will assign and monitor project work

6. Hold review session with core project team, client, and other key stakeholders to gain buy-in and identify missing item



Build a WBS Dictionary• Provides detailed background in each task• Capture critical information about activity, such as

• Assumptions• Specific activities at task level• Resources• Predecessors• Successors• Reminder

• Not a book of terms and definitions• Contents will vary depending on need for information

Tool 3: WBS Dictionary



WBS Numbering System• WBS numbering supports easy reference to specific

work items• Conventional numbering uses a decimal system of

increasing details• When establish, do not change numbers

• Do not delete numbers no longer in project• Add number for new work• Do not reuse or change numbers

It is logical to follow and allows one to easily see the grouping of tasks. It also facilitates tracing low-level issues by task number back to broad levels and their responsible managers. In addition, it supports easy reference to specific work items.



How Does the WBS Originate?• Template• Past project• System tutorial• Creative energy• Expert opinion



Planning • Translate the WBS into the plan• Quantify the work identifies in WBS• Quantify by estimating expected –

- Duration - Cost- Resources

• Estimating is a deliberate process- Quality of the estimate leads to quality of the project



EstimatingAn assessment of the likely quantitative result; usually

applied to project costs and duration and should always include some indication of accuracy

• Tasks in the WBS provide the basis for the project manager’s estimating of –- How long?- How much money?- How many people and other resources?



Good Estimating Practice- Acknowledge the level of accuracy

- Estimates should be done at varied levels of accuracy- Communicate the level of accuracy with the estimate

- Get inputs from many sources- In-house sources- Outside sources- Professional organizations



Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) – good practice

Et =O + 4ML + P

6(for duration or budget estimates)

SD =P - O

6

Where:

Et = Estimate Time

O = Optimistic estimate

ML = Most likely

P = Pessimistic estimate

SD = Standard deviation



Standard Deviation in PERT Estimates (Bell Curve)

99%

95%

68%-3s

-2s

-1s

3s

2s

1s

Mean

Pro

babi

lity

den

sity

Possible project durations or costWhere: Mean = Et = s SD



PERT Estimates - PracticeExample:

Optimistic estimate for a task: 10 weeks

Pessimistic estimate for the task: 18 weeks

Most likely: 16 weeks

Estimated time = (10 + (4 x 16) + 18)/6 = 15.3 weeks

Mean = 15.3 weekss = SD = (18 – 10)/6 = 1.33From Bell curve, the probability to finish the task in 15.3 weeks is 50%.

If we want to increase the probability to “approximately 85%”, the schedule should be 15.3 + 1s = 16.63 weeks. To increase to 98%, it should be 15.3 + 2s = 15.3 + 2 x 1.33 = 18 weeks

86Project Managemet


Special Case: Extreme Makeover Home Edition (Movie)

Ty Pennington Project manger, Team leader/carpenter

Paul DiMeo Designer (Carpenter/Attitude)

Tracy Huston Designer (Shopping/Style)

Michael Moloney Designer (Interiors/Glamour)

Constance Ramos Designer (Building/Planning)

Alle Ghadban Designer (Building/Planning)



Schedule Planning• Determine the time duration to complete the project• Clarify relationship between various tasks• Tools help in schedule planning only when accurate

information is used with tools• Common scheduling tools:

- Network diagrams- Gann Charts- Project calendars- Milestone charts



Network Diagram Rules • There is a starting point• There is an ending point• There are predecessors for all activities (tasks)• There are successors for all activities (no hangers!)• The network must be update and current• There are no loop• The logic is always reviewed and updated



Network DiagrammingPrecedence Diagramming Method (PDM)• Show the logical relationship between tasks• Tasks are represented by boxes• Dependencies are represented by arrows• Multiple arrows (dependencies) are possible

Start Finish

A B C

D E F



Building a Precedence Diagram:1. List the activities in WBS and relationships

2. Create a start node

3. Draw arrow from start node to the first activity’s node

4. Sequentially arrange all activities from “Start”

5. Repeat process from successors for all activities

6. Create a Finish node

7. Double check for missing relationship



Transforming a WBS into a Network Diagram

Project: Install new building fire alarm

WBS Tasks Duration Predecessors

a. Determine system requirement 10 Boss approve

b. Design System layout 15 a

c. Obtain new water line 20 a

d. Obtain permits 32 b

e. Order/receive parts 35 b

f. Install new system 5 d, e

g. Test new system 2 c, f

h. Deactivate old system 1 g



Basic Scheduling

Early Start (ES)

Early Finish (EF)

Late Start (LS)

Late Finish (LF)

How Early/Late can this task Start/Finish Based on the network logic and constraints



Forward Pass

Start Finisha. Reqt=10

b. Layoutt=15

h. Deactivatet=1

g. Testt=2

f. Installt=5

e. Partst=35

d. Permitst=32

c. Waterlinet=20

Early

Start

0 10 100

Early Finish

25

25 60

25 57

10 30

60 65 65 67 67 68 68



Calculating the Forward Pass (Finish-Start Relationships):

1. Set the early start date for the 1st task

2. Begin at left, work left-to-right, top-to-bottom

3. Use the formula (ES + Duration = EF)

4. When successor has multiple predecessors, use the latest early finished date of the predecessors as the early start date for the successor

5. Continue to end of network



Backward Pass


b. Layoutt=15

h. Deactivatet=1

g. Testt=2

f. Installt=5

e. Partst=35

d. Permitst=32

c. Waterlinet=20

Late Start

0 10 100

Late Finish

25

25 60

25 57

10 30

60 65 65 67 67 68 68

68686767656560

60

65

28

45

25 60

25101000



Calculating the Backward pass1. Set the late finish date of the last task equal to the early

finish date of the last task

2. Begin at right, work right-to-left, top-to-bottom

3. Use the formula (LF - Duration = LS)

4. When a predecessor has multiple successors, use the earliest late start date of the successors as the late finish date for the predecessor

5. Continue to beginning of network



FloatAmount of time a task may be delayed from its early start

without delaying the project finish date

• Calculate from the network diagram after completing a backward pass

• Indicate the amount of flexibility the project manager has to adjust the timing of a particular task

• Float is calculated by subtracting early finish of

predecessor from early start of successor ( LSj – Efi )



Determine Float


b. Layoutt=15

h. Deactivatet=1

g. Testt=2

f. Installt=5

e. Partst=35

d. Permitst=32

c. Waterlinet=20

Float3

0 10 100

Float35

25

25 60

25 57

10 30

60 65 65 67 67 68 68

68686767656560

60

65

28

45

25 60

25101000



Critical Path• Path on which any delay in project tasks will impact

project schedule• Longest of all path through the project• Path with zero float/slack time• Shortest time to complete the project



Critical Path


b. Layoutt=15

h. Deactivatet=1

g. Testt=2

f. Installt=5

e. Partst=35

d. Permitst=32

c. Waterlinet=20

0 10 100 25

25 60

25 57

10 30

60 65 65 67 67 68 68

68686767656560

60

65

28

45

25 60

25101000



Lag and Lead• Lag: Modification of a logical relationship that directs a delay in the

successor task

• Lead: Modification of a logical relationship that allows for acceleration of the successor task

• Input to the network diagram to show planned timing between tasks

Days Days

Task A Task B

Lag = 2 days Task A

Task B

Lead = 2 days



Task Dependency Types• Finish to Start (FS): these tasks are successors and cannot begin

until the predecessor is complete

• Start to Start (SS): these tasks are usually closely related in nature and should be started but not necessarily completed at the same time

• Finish to Finish (FF): these tasks require that the predecessor task and the successor task be completed at same time

• Start to Finish (SF): these rare tasks require that the predecessor doesn’t begin until the successor finishes

SF

Physical security

confirmation

Install W2K Service

Install IIS

Configure IIS

Create Test User Account

XML Apps

DB Relations

SS

FS

FF



Techniques for Decreasing Project Duration• Crashing: Reduce the duration of tasks or critical path in any

possible way

• Crashing a network: Decreasing the total project duration after analyzing a number of alternatives to determine how to get the maximum duration compression for the least cost.

• Fast Tracking: Work on tasks in parallel (simultaneously)

• To speed up a project, you must speed up the critical path• Time and cost trade-offs• Resource trade-offs: leveling (Leveling is the rescheduling of

tasks with float to resolve resource issues)



Using Microsoft ProjectAfter initial network diagram creation is complete, transfer the

plan to Microsoft Project



Gantt ChartGantt charts are bar charts that depict the beginning and end

dates of tasks



Gantt Chart Benefits:1. It clearly depicts the beginning and end times of tasks

2. It shows interrelationships and critical path

3. It is one of the best communication tools available to the project manager (simple, clear and understandable)



Setting MilestonesMilestones –• Are significant events• Denote achievement regarding time, money, tasks• Consume no time



Case Study 3:

Project WBS and Network Diagram



Resource Loading Histogram

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Personnel Involved

Project Week



Project Calendar (Month 2)

Milestone

Task b & c Task b & c

Task c, d & e

Task c, d & e

Task c, d & e

Task c, d & e

Task c, d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e

Task d & e



Cost Planning• How much will the project cost (in money)?• Source of input ---

- Outside estimators- Those who perform the work- Those with experience- Those who know the risks- Those who are responsible for the work



Building a Cost Estimate• Top-down estimating

- Early approximations using categories of work- Often has a higher level of variance

• Bottom-up estimating- Based on completed WBS- Assign cost to tasks or control accounts- Sum up for total cost

• Either method needs to include –- Direct cost- Indirect cost (overhead)- Reserve



Cost Components

• Direct• Labor

- Internal- Contract

• Materials and equipment

• Other direct costs- Fees- Travel - Incidentals

• Indirect (overhead)• General

administrative- HQ expanses- Fringe benefits- Depreciation

• Marketing and sales

• R & D



Cumulative cost curve

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 160

50

100

150

200

250

300

350



Resource Planning• Plan for the resources needed for the project: people;

equipment; facilities.• Fundamental questions:

- What need to be done?- Who and what do we need?- Who can do the work?- What can do the work?- Who and what can we get?- What level of excellence and competence is essential?- How will we use the resources?- How will the resources affect schedules and costs?- …



Resource Planning Tools• Resource/responsibility matrixes• Resource loading charts• Resource loading histograms• Leveling requirement



Resource/Responsibility Matrix

Project Manager

Executive Council

Project Team

VenderCity Building Department

Determine system requirement

Design system layout

Obtain new water line

Obtain permit

Order and receive parts

Install new system

Test new system

Deactive old system

Legend: P - Perform; A - Authorize; I - Inspect; M - Monitor



Resource Loading Table

Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Total

Determine system requirement

3 3

Design system layout 2 2

Obtain new water line 2 2

Obtain permit 3 3

Order and receive parts 3 3 6

Install new system 5 6 7 2 20

Test new system 5 2 2 2 2 13

Deactive old system 4 6 10 8 28

Total resource week 3 2 8 8 6 12 4 2 2 2 4 6 10 8 77



Resource Leveling

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Personnel Involved

Project Week

Head count limit of 7 people Involved



Resources As Estimating Sources

Who provide the best estimates?• Outside sources• People who know the work• People who are accountable• People who do the work



Estimating DurationsDuration considerations:• Resource hours: Resource hours required to complete a task (8

effort hours = 1 resource day)• Working time: Activity duration based on number of hours in a

working day (8 hours = 1 day)• Elapsed time: Calendar durations including weekend, holidays, and

breaks (24 hours = 1 day)• Productivity: Rate at which work is produced• Availability: Resource present and ready to work• Contiguous duration: Work time that is not interrupted• Interruptible durations: Work time that might be interrupted



Productivity and Availability in Resource-Driven Estimates

Cost =Effort

Productivityx Unit cost

Time =Effort

Availability

Productivity



What Is the Cost of Each Resource?

Resource/Responsibility Matrix

X

X

X

Resource

Task

1.1.1Research (70hr)

1.1.2Survey (100hr)

1.1.3Dig (150hr)

Pat-$70/Hour

Jean-$30/Hour

Peter-$100/Hour

PatProductivity: 75%Availability: 90%

JeanProductivity: 60%Availability: 100%

PeterProductivity: 110%Availability: 40%



Risk PlanningThe process of deciding how to approach and plan the

risk management activities for a project• Risks are threats AND opportunities• Risk planning is an integral part of project planning



Risk Management

RiskManagement

Planning

Identify

Analyze

Prioritize

Plan

Execute

Evaluate

Document

Communicate



Risk probability and Impact• For each risk you identify ----

- What is probability of this happening?- What would be impact on my project if it did

happen?• Based on assessment of probability and impact, you

should prioritize the risk:- You do not have resource to prepare for

everything- Some potential events are too low priority to be

worth the effort



Risk Response Strategies• Acceptance (accepting the consequences)• Mitigation (reducing the expected value of the threat)

- Minimize the probability of the threat event- Minimize the impact of the threat event

• Transference (passing the threat to another)• Avoidance (eliminating a specific threat, usually by

eliminate the cause)- Accomplish the task, eliminate the threat



Reserve PlanningA provision in the project plan to migrate cost and/or

schedule risk• Reserve has multiple components

- Cash- Time- People and equipment

• Reserve planning ---- Deals with events within your plan- Does not deal with changes or additions to your plan



Management ReserveManagement reserve is an artificial task that is added to the

end of the project. The time allotted to the reserve is typically 10 to 15 percent of the total amount of time to complete all the tasks in a project.

When a task runs over its allotted time, the overrun is applied to the management reserve at the end of the critical path.



Procurement ConsiderationsMake-or-buy decision• Does your organization have the capability or expertise

necessary for a successful result?• Does your organization want to share the risk with

another organization?• Who can do it faster, cheaper, or better, your employees

or a contractor?• Does your organization want to undertake the ongoing

expanse of hiring full-time staff for a discrete, short-term effort?



Procurement Planning• Make-or-buy decision• Selecting “from outside” --

• Materials• Services• People

• Project manager becomes the customer



Procurement Considerations• What types of contractor will be used?• What are evaluation criteria to select outside contracts?• What responsibility does the project manager have in

procurement and solicitation?• Are standardized procurement documents used? If so,

what are they?• How will multiple providers be managed?• How will procurement be coordinated with the rest of

the project?



Communication Planning• Who needs to know what? • How will you tell them?• When and how often?• What do you make part of permanent record and how?

Tool 4: Communication Plan



Communication PlanGiven a scenario involving project information, including timing,

demonstrate the ability to clearly identify what needs to be communicated during a project, to whom, when (formal or informal), without creating unnecessary turmoil in the project team, in situations such as:

• Schedule change• Resource loss• Personality clashes• Budget changes• Low morale• Organizational changes• Project phase completion



Quality Planning• Which quality standards are relevant to the project and how

will they be met?• International standard: ISO-9000• SEI: Capacity Maturity Model for software• Organization standard: MGate – Motorola• Development process standard

• Quality is planned into a project, not inspect in• Implementing quality assurance• Peer review• Reviews by outside experts• Cost in quality is much less than the cost in rework



Quality Process Improvement TechniquesKaizen• A concept of unrelenting, company-wide, continuous

improvement• The western approach relies on breakthrough improvement-large

dramatic improvement• Kaizen relies on simple techniques and common sense to improve

through small changes

TQM – Total Quality Management• A customer-driven approach based on process improvement

• Combines breakthrough improvement with incremental improvement

• Total employee involvement



Six Sigma: A Business Approach Six sigma is a statistic term, it refers to standard deviation or a

statistical tolerance

Six sigma defines the state of having 3.4 defects per one million opportunities

Sigma(Standard Deviation)

Defects Per Million Opportunities

1.5 500,000

2 308,573

3 66,807

4 6,210

5 233

6 3.4



Digital Six SigmaMeasurement and Methodology • Address the most important business issues• Use structured methodologies:

- Define-Measure-Analyze-Improve-Control (DMAIC) for solving problems

- Define-Measure-Analyze-Design-Verify (DMADV) for process development or re-engineering

- Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) for new product



Process and Quality ModelsISO 9000

Series of international quality guidelines and standards that is becoming a requirement for doing business

• All operations influencing quality are under control and are visible

• Registration is achieved through third-party audit• Quality management processes are reviewed against

standard• Certification of quality processes – not products or services• Different system components, such as software, have

specialized certification requirements



Software Engineering Institute – Capability Maturity Model for Software (SW-CMM)

A model for judging the maturity of the software processes of an organization and for identifying the key practices that are required to increase the maturity of these processes

The CMM is organized into five maturity levels:

1. Initial. Few processes are defined, success depends on individual effort and heroics (ad hoc)

2. Repeatable. Basic project management are established to track cost, schedule, and functionality (repeat earlier successful project)

3. Defined. The software process is documented, standardized, and integrated into a standard software process.

4. Managed. Both software process and products are quantitatively and controlled

5. Optimized. Continuous process improvement.



Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI)



CMMI Process Areas Presented in the Continuous Representations

Process Management

OPF Organizational Process FocusOPD Organizational Process Definition + IPPDOT Organizational TrainingOPP Organizational Process PerformanceOID Organizational Innovation and Deployment

Project Management

PP Project PlanningPMC Project Monitoring and ControlSAM Supplier Agreement and ManagementIPM Integrated Project Management + IPPDRSKM Risk ManagementQPM Quantitative Project Management

Engineering

REQM Requirement ManagementRD Requirement DevelopmentTS Technical SolutionPI Product IntegrationVER VerificationVAL Validation

Supporting

CM Configuration ManagementPPQA Process and Product Quality AssuranceMA Measurement and AnalysisDAR Decision Analysis and ResolutionCAR Causal Analysis and Resolution



CMMI Process Areas Presented in the Staged Representations

Maturity Level 2

(Basic Project Management)

REQM Requirement ManagementPP Project PlanningPMC Project Monitoring and ControlSAM Supplier Agreement and ManagementMA Measurement and AnalysisPPQA Process and Product Quality AssuranceCM Configuration Management

Maturity Level 4

(Quantitative Management)

OPP Organizational Process PerformanceQPM Quantitative Project Management

Maturity Level 3

(Process Standardization)

RD Requirement DevelopmentTS Technical SolutionPI Product IntegrationVER VerificationVAL ValidationOPF Organizational Process FocusOPD Organizational Process Definition + IPPDOT Organizational TrainingIPM Integrated Project Management + IPPDRSKM Risk ManagementDAR Decision Analysis and Resolution

Maturity Level 5

(Continuous Process Improvement)

OID Organizational Innovation and DeploymentCAR Causal Analysis and Resolution



The Project PlanFrom planning to implementation: The Project Plan• A formal, approved document, in summarized or

detailed form, used to guide project execution, control and completion

• The culmination of all planning and the various component plans is the project plan

• Putting all the planning we had discussed in this unit together and making sure everything is coordinated

Tool 5: Project Plan Outline



Project Management Planning Software• Office management software

- Database, spreadsheet, word processing• Tailored software—

- Scheduling and schedule monitoring - Risk management programs- Decision support programs

• Graphic design and presentation software• Software tools don’t take the place of using your brain

and talents



Unit 3 Key messages:• The core project team is involved in project planning• Understanding the scope is key to project planning• A work breakdown structure (WBS) is a deliverable- oriented method to break down the scope in

order to plan for its completion• Although a WBS has different formats, levels of detail, and ways to be created, the work package is

always the bottom-most level• A WBS dictionary provides important working-level information about each work package (task)• Schedule planning involves determining the timing of the project, including critical path, lag, lead,

and float• Cost planning involves determining the direct costs that work packages required, as well as indirect

cost (overhead) allocated to the project• Resource planning covers people, materials, facilities, and other resources• Risk (both good and bad) must be identified, analyzed, prioritized, and planned for through

avoidance, transference, mitigation, or acceptance strategies• Procurement planning involves deciding whether to procure outside services and how to choose

which outside entity to use• Communication and quality round out the project manager’s planning processes• All these processes come together in the project plan


Unit 4: Project Implementation



Project Baseline• A baseline is the original approved plan, plus or minus

approved scope changes• The baseline establishes a reference against which

project managers can measure actual project progress• Use triple constraint to derive the baseline:

- Scope- Cost- Time



Project Baseline• Technical (scope) baseline: deliverables in WBS• Cost baseline: a cumulative cost or budget of all tasks

and associated support expected to be incurred during the life cycle of the project

• Schedule baseline: duration needed for completing the project

• Performance measurement baseline: is made up of these three baselines, but the costs have been obtained based on decisions made about technical approach, as well as the schedule for accomplishing the technical baseline



Performance Measurement Baseline

Contract Price

Target Fee Target Cost

Reserve

Undistributed Budget

Distributed (Cost Accounts)

Performance Measurement

Baseline



Who Needs Baseline?• Customer • Project manager• Management• Accounting • Project team



Assessing Project Performance• Monitoring –

Take actions to measure outputs against standard and determine correction actions for unsatisfactory results

• Continuous, ongoing• Used by project team to adjust the project

• Evaluation –• Periodic • Used by senior management and customers to adjust the project



Monitoring Project Performance• Compare against baselines

• Cost • Time • Scope

• Identify variance• React as necessary



Earn Value• An objective, mathematical approach to view just a few

numbers the correlate a variety of project baselines • An objective look at a project status• Schedule and cost variances• Assessing schedule, cost, work status• A single formula to assess how the project is performing



Earn Value

Cumulative Values

Data Date Time

Earned Value

Planned Value

Actual Cost

BAC

Cumulative Values

Data Date Time

Earned Value

Planned Value

Actual Cost

BAC



Earn Value Terminology• Planned value (PV): the planned cost of a task as of

today• Actual cost (AC): cost incurred for task work done• Earned value (EV): budgeted cost for the work that has

been done (% complete x total task PV)(All three values (above) must have the same reference date)

• Budget at completion (BAC): sum of approved cost estimates for all activities on a project



Integrated Cost/Schedule StatusA

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13

14 15

16 17

18 19

20

Task A

Task B

Task C

Task D

Task E

Task F

Task G

Task H

PV = $4525AC = $4525

PV = $6450AC = $7000

PV = $4450AC = $5000

PV = $6025EV = $4519AC = $4520

PV = $8025EV = $6420AC = $6420

PV = $1110AC = $0

PV = $0

PV = $0

“Data Date” Time now



Key Earn Value Data

Task Task Cost Estimates

% Complete

PV EV AC

A $4,525 100 $4,525 $4,525 $4,525

B $6,450 100 $6,450 $6,450 $7,000

C $4,450 100 $4,450 $4,450 $5,000

D $6,025 75 $6,025 $4,519 $4,520

E $8,025 80 $8,025 $6,420 $6,420

F $3,330 0 $1,110 0 0

G $4,750 0 0 0 0

H $7,800 0 0 0 0

Total $45,355 $30,585 $26,364 $27,465



Variances and Indexes• The difference between what you have accomplished

and what you had plan to accomplish• Earned value calculations

Cost Variance Schedule Variance

CV = EV – AC SV = EV – PV

Cost Performance Index Schedule Performance Index

CPI = EV / AC SPI = EV / PV



Variances and Performance Indexes• Variances are key indicators of whether the project is on

schedule and within budget• Performance indexes are another way of comparing

how the project is doing against schedule and cost baselines

Metric Formula Calculation Result

SV EV - PV $26,364 - $30,585 $-4,221

CV EV - AC $26,364 - $27,465 $-1,101

SPI EV / PV $26,364 / $30,585 0.86

CPI EV / AC $26,364 / $27,465 0.96



Variances• Interpreting variances

• Positive value for CV and SV are good (cost underrun; ahead of schedule)

• Negative value for CV and SV are bad (cost overrun; behind schedule)

• Ratios great than 1 for CPI and SPI are good (cost underrun; ahead of schedule)

• CPI and SPI ratios less than 1 are bad (cost overrun; behind schedule)



Completion Estimate• The estimate of how much money is needed to operate

the project from today until the end of project.

Estimate at Completion Variance at Completion

EAC = BAC/CPI VAC = BAC – EAC

Estimate to Completion

ETC = EAC – AC

Percent Complete Percent Spent

PC = EV / BAC PS = AC / BAC



To Complete Performance Index• A index serves as an indicator of the performance

improvement necessary to correct project performance deficiencies

TCPI = (work remaining) / (budget remaining)

= (BAC – EV) / (BAC – AC)



Completion Estimates

Metric Formula Calculation Result

Percent Complete(PC)

EV / BAC $26,364 / $45,355 0.58

Percent Spent(PS)

AC / BAC $27,465 / $45,355 0.61

Estimate at Completion(EAC)

BAC / CPI $45,355 / 0.96 $47,245

Variance at Completion(VAC)

BAC - EAC $45,355 - $47,245 $-1,890

Estimate to Completion(ETC)

EAC - AC $47,245 - $27,465 $19,780

To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI)

(BAC – EV) (BAC – AC)

($45,355 - $26,364) ($45,355 - $27,465)

1.06



Project Evaluation• Periodic project evaluations ---

• Encourage timely adjustment• Facilitate midcourse corrections instead of waiting

until the end• Help with stakeholder communication

• Outcomes of evaluations ---• Continue as planned• Minor redirection• Major redirection• Early termination



Analyze Variances• Estimate errors• Technical problems

• Design • Software• Test

• Management problems• Personnel skill• Labor availability• Organization

• Economics• Acts of nature• Market fluctuations• Subcontractors and

venders• Lead time



Assessing Complete Status• Time• Cost• Scope• Resource• Quality• Customer perspective



Performance Reporting

Include these three components in the report

1. How you have done since the last report (status)

2. What you anticipate in the near future (forecast)

3. Other key things the reader needs to know



Case Study 4:

Reporting Project Performance



Developing the Project Team• Project Team: All those who directly or indirectly report

to the project manager• The people who actually do the work• Project management balancing act --

• Align where the customer wants to be with where the team is headed

• Understand team motivations to keep performance high• Build the team



Project TeamThe project manager’s role ---• Organizes the team that will be doing the work• Communicate to the team and stakeholders• Direction and support• Protect your team so team member can do their work• “Manage it” not “do it”• What makes a team?

• High performance• Common purpose and goals• Independence



ConflictSource of conflicts:• Individual: Conflicts arise from differences in goals, facts, value and

method• Organizational: Sources of conflict in project organizations include –

• Functional and project structure• Status and authority• Competition for resources• Reward and compensation programs• Communication network

• Team: Major sources of conflict on project team include: schedules, priorities, administrative procedures, technical recommendations, resource, personalities



Negotiating Conflict• Forcing: the project manager uses his or her power to

direct the solution• Smoothing: the major points of agreement are given the

most attention and differences between sides are not highlighted

• Withdrawing: one or both sides withdraw from conflict• Compromising: both sides agree such that each wins or

loses on certain significant issues



Stakeholder Expectations• Must be managed … or they tend to wander• Customer satisfaction based on expectations• Monitor expectations throughout implementation• Should be a major project management concern



Quality AssuranceThe quality assurance function -• Review requests for quality assurance appraisal• Provide technical advice• Review and build a quality environment• Develop standards and guidelines• Analyze errors• Report problems to project manager• Assist in correcting errors



Quality Control• Definition: Quality control involves monitoring specific

project results to determine if they comply with relevant quality standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory results

• Quality control focuses on compliance with quality standards

• Major inputs to quality control: • Work results• Quality management plan• Operation definitions• Checklists



Basic Quality Tool Kit• Collecting and display data:

• Inspectors; check sheets; statistical sampling; run chart…

• Working with idea• Brainstorming; cause-and-effect diagram (Fish-bone)…

• Tools for analysis• Prioritization matrix; control charts …



Managing Changes• Change happens for many reasons and in many forms:

• Customer inputs• Team inputs• Business inputs

• An organized, systematic approach is helpful in managing change:• Change request form• Review and evaluation process• Decisions

Tool 6: Change request form



Configuration ManagementDocumented procedure to apply technical and administrative

direction to --- • Identify and document functional characteristics of an

item or system• Control and evaluate any changes to the characteristics• Record and report the change and its implementation

status• Audit the items and system to verify conformance to

requirements



Managing Risk• Be proactive• Monitor earlier assumptions• Watch for “triggers”• Implement responses, as needed, from your risk management plan• Document what you do



Reserve • Held at a management level• Be clear about appropriate uses of reserves:

• Not intended for changes in scope• Commit reserves to issues on a case-by-case basis• Reserves and workaround plans can be used to manage risk



Unit 4 Key messages:• Stakeholders measure how the project is doing against scope, time, cost, and

other baselines• Project assessments help guide the project to success• Monitoring is ongoing and used by the team; evaluation is periodic and used

by senior management• Earned value shows the project manager the difference between what was

planned and what has occurred at a certain point in time• Performance reports should be prepared differently for different audiences• The project manger must develop, structure, and support the project team for

it to perform well• Conflict is inevitable and must be managed• The project manager must balance team performance with stakeholder

expectations• Change can be managed with a well designed change management system• Reserves and workaround plans can be used to manage risks


Unit 5: Project Closeout



Proper Closeout • Planned for in the WBS with resources allocated to it• Needed for all projects – even those that end prematurely

or that are otherwise incomplete

Tool 7: Contractor Closeout Check List



Scope Verification and customer Acceptance • Did you do what you said you were going to do?• Two steps:

• Sit down with your team and check the WBS• Sit down with customer

Tool 8: Customer Acceptance Worksheet



Administrative and Contract Closeout • Close out the books• Set up project archives or files• Handle equipment, facilities, and so on

Tool 9: Documentation Plan



Lessons Learned • Timely• Relevant• In context• Detailed• Filed and accessible

Tool 10: Lesson Learned Documentation

Tool 11: Final Project Report



Other Closeout Activities • Personal closeout• Team closeout• Public relations



Unit 5 Key messages:• Plan closeout in the WBS• Verify scope against agree-upon requirements• Closing out with the customer involves both technical acceptance and sign-off• Administrative and contract closeout ensures that all project requirements are

met• Lessons learned impact valuable knowledge to your organization for use in

future work• Close out with the team, stakeholders, and yourself, including appropriate

recognition and celebration of your efforts


Bibliography• A Guide to the Project management body of

Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), Project Management Institute, 2000

• Joseph Phillips, IT Project Management on Track from Start to Finish, McGraw-Hill/Osborne, 2002

• Sydney F. Love, Achieving Problem Free Project Management, John Wiley & Sons, 1989

1 Project Management Project Management and Case Study 软件项目管理和案例分析.

Documents

Transcript of 1 Project Management Project Management and Case Study 软件项目管理和案例分析.