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서강대학교 교수학습센터부소장 정유성

Chapt. 1 : What is Globalization ?

* Global phenomenon (1)

- an ever-more-global economy constructed by history, adventurers, generals, merchants, and financiers

- Today, unprecedented changes in communications, transportation, and computer technology have given the process new impetus.

- As globally mobile capital reorganizes business firms, it sweeps away regulation and undermines local and national politics.

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* Global phenomenon (2)

- Globalization creates new markets and wealth, even as it causes widespread suffering, disorder, and unrest.

- It is both a source of repression and a catalyst for global movements of social justice and emancipation.

- These materials look at the main features of globalization, asking what is new, what drives the process, how it changes politics, and how it affects global institutions like the UN.

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* Global phenomenon (3-1)

Some remarks:

* 1926 the Fabian Society: ‘The Shrinking World: Dangers and

Possibilities’ (Toynbee)

* 1960 Edmund Carpenter/Marshall McLuhan: “postliterate

man's electronic media contract the world to a village or tribe

where everything happens to everyone at the same time ..

Television gives this quality of simultaneity to events in the

global village.”

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* Global phenomenon (3-2)

• ===> the world is getting smaller is one of the central beliefs on the twentieth century.

• The idea of 'globalization' is attracting growing attention in the social sciences and is infiltrating the language of business and politics, even if sceptics are already emerging.

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the concept of Globalization : a twofold contribution too make to the study of IR

(1) At a theoretical level, globalization places the changing nature of space and territory at the centre of our concerns. Given that the central actor in IR, the state, is defined in terms of territory, the neglect of 'space' as a category is a major blind spot.

(2) Drawing on ideas of globalization, including those developed in other disciplines, helps to illuminate the problems faced by contemporary states from Canada to China. In particular, there is a growing gap bet. the practice of politics in an integrated world and the categories used to analyse that practice.

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1. Globalization : the buzz word of the decade

- is using to signify (1) that something profound is happening (2) that the world is changing (3) that a new world economic, political and cultural order is

emerging.

- is used in so many different contexts, by so many different people, for so many different purposes.

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So it is difficult to ascertain what is at stake in the globalization problematic, what function the term serves, and what effects it has for contemporary theory and politics.

the conceptions of globalization? (1) the Westernization of the world (Latouches, 1996) (2) a cover for the ascendancy of capitalism (Ferguson, 1992) (3) generating increasing homogeneity (4) producing diversity and heterogeneity through increased

hybridization

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for business: a strategy of increasing corporate profits and power for government: often deployed to promote an increase in state

power for non-government social organizations: a lever to produce

positive social goods like environmental action, democratization, or humanization

globalization equate with modernity ? vs. the ‘global age’ follows and is distinctly different from the ‘modern age’?

we live in a global age or epoch, in which globalization is the defining concept vs. claims for the novelty and centrality of globalization exaggerated.

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Yet the ubiquity( 편재 ) of the term ‘globalization’

- it is part of a reconfiguring and rethinking of contemporary social theory and politics that is caught up in some of the central debates and conflicts of the present age.

- it is certainly arguable that during the past decades, the world has been undergoing the most significant period of technological innovation and global restructuring since the first decades of the twentieth century.

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- globalization signifies both continuities with the past, with modernity and modernization, and novelties of the present and the already here future.

- globalization must be seen as a complex and multidimensional phenomenon that involves different levels, flows, tensions and conflicts, such that a transdisciplinary social theory is necessary to capture its contours, dynamics, trajectories, problems and possible futures.

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2. Theorizing globalization

(1) talking cogently about globalization requires

- we establish the different uses and senses of the term and try to specify what processes it is used to describe

- rather the term is used as a cover concept for a heterogeneity of processes that need to be spelled out and articulated.

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(2) the term ‘globalization’

- is neither innocent nor neutral in many of its uses

- often serves to replace older discourses like ‘imperialism,’ but also ‘modernization.’

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* a replacement for imperialism

① it could displace a focus on the domination of developing countries by the overdeveloped ones, or of national and local economies by transnational corporations

② it could serve as a cover to neutralize the horrors of colonialism and could be part of a discourse of neo-imperialism that serves to obscure the continuing exploitation of much of the world by a few superpowers and giant transnational corporations, thus cloaking some of the more barbaric and destructive aspects of contemporary development.

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* a replacement term for modernization

① it can rob this previously legitimating ideology of the connotations that the processes (i. e. modernization, which has a positive ring to it) are necessarily bringing progress and improvement, are part of an inexorable trajectory of progress and modernity.

- Compared to the discourses of imperialism(negative, critical) and modernization(positive, legitimating), the discourse of globalization is on the surface neutral.

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② Yet, it too is bound up with highly ideological discourses of the present age being used by some to represent and entirely positive process of economic and social progress, technological innovation, more diverse products and services, a cornucopia of information and growing cultural freedom, and a higher standard of living.

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③ often serves to replace older discourses like ‘modernity,’ but also ‘postmodernity.’

* for some, a continuation of the problematic of modernization and modernity,

for others, globalization signifies something new and different and is bound up with the postmodern turn, or an altogether novel and as yet untheorized global condition.

④ globalization is seen as a process of standardization in which a globalized media and consumer culture circulates the globe creating sameness and homogeneity and massification in the modern project.

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• by contrast, for postmodernist, globalization is seen as the local, diversity, difference, and heterogeneity, and sometimes they claim that globalization itself produces hybridity and multiplicity, arguing that global culture makes possible unique appropriations and developments all over the world with new forms of hybrid syntheses of the global and the local, thus proliferating difference and heterogeneity.

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- pro-globalization boosters :

champions of the market economy, which with the triumph of Thatcherism-Reaganism in the 1980s became a dominant ideology,

Bill Gates and avatars of the ‘information superhighway’ and new technologies, and other political and economic elites,

supported by their academic promoters and perhaps by sociological analysts who exaggerate the inexorable and irresistible trajectory of globalization while covering over its more troubling aspects.

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(3) critics

- globalization is bringing about the devastating destruction of local traditions, the continued subordination of poorer nations and regions by richer ones, environmental destruction, and homogenization of culture and everyday life.

- Marxists, liberals and multiculturalists who stress the threat to national sovereignty, local traditions, and participatory democracy through global forces, environmentalists who fear the destructive ecological effects of unchecked globalization, and conservatives who see globalization as a threat to national and local cultures and the sanctity of tradition

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So, the term globalization?

- is a theoretical construct that is itself contested and open for various meanings and inflections

- can be described positively or negatively, or multivalently to describe highly complex and multidimensional processes in the economy, polity, culture, and everyday life.

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3. Globalization: economy/state/culture

globalization

- a code-word that stands for a tremendous diversity of issues and problems and that serves as a front for a variety of theoretical and political positions.

- a legitimating ideology to cover over and sanitize ugly realities vs. the discourse to point precisely to these phenomena and a series of contemporary problems and conflicts.

- necessarily transdisciplinary, and describing the ways in which global economic, political and cultural forces are rapidly penetrating the earth in the creation of a new world market, new transnational political organization, and a new global culture.

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(1) The expansion of the capitalist world market into areas previously closed off to it (i.e. in the communist sphere or developing countries which attempted to pursue their own independent line of development) is accompanied by the decline of the nation-state and its power to regulate and control the flow of goods, people, information, and various cultural forms.

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① global networks or power and imperialist empires for centuries, accompanied by often fierce local resistance by the colonized entities.

② neither decolonization nor the end of the Cold war has loosened the hold of transnational systems of domination

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(2) the rise of global culture with the development of a new global market economy and shifting system of nation-states

① the rise of global culture - an especially salient feature of contemporary globalization ② with accompanying the dramatic expansion of capitalism and new transnational political organizations, a new global culture is emerging as a result of computer and communications technology, a consumer society with its panorama of goods and services, transnational forms of architecture and design, and a wide range of products and cultural forms that are traversing national boundaries and becoming part of a new world culture

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③ it includes the proliferation of media technologies that veritable create Marshall McLuhan’s dream of a global village.

④ it involves promoting lifestyle, consumption, products and identities.

- globalization involves the dissemination of new technologies that have tremendous impact on the economy, polity, society, culture and everyday life.

- New technologies also create new industries, such as the computer and information industry, and allow transnational media and information instantaneously to traverse the globe.

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4. Resisting globalization - Antiglobalization

• Globalization can be disempowering, leading to cynicism and hopelessness, a feeling that inexorable market forces cannot be regulated and controlled by the state, or that the economy cannot be shaped and directed by the people, thus undermining democracy and countervailing powers to the hegemony of capital.

• forces of resistance and struggle that attempt to counter the most destructive aspects of global forces, or which inflect globalization for democratic and locally empowering ends.

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① a conflict between growing centralization and organization of power and wealth in the hands of the few and opposing processes exhibiting a fragmentation of power that is more plural, multiple, and open to contestation than previously.

② globalization involves new connections and the integration of economies and cultures into a world system, overcoming previous divisions and distances.

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③ during the period of the Cold War, the system of modern nation-states divided into two camps - capitalist and socialist - producing a shifting series of alliances and conflicts influencing countries from Vietnam to Nicaragua. Nations either pursued the capitalist or socialist model of development.

④ with the collapse of the communist system, this period of history came to an end and during the 1990s the capitalist market model of globalization has become dominant and practically uncontested. -> the triumph of democracy throughout the world with its discourse and institutions of a pluralistic system of checks and balances, parties, elections and human rights.

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⑤ the decline of the power of the nation-state =>

- a new geopolitical matrix in which transnational organization,

corporations and forces challenge national and local sites of

power and influence.

- the increased power of transnational institutions.

- the increasing prominence of world trade, financial

speculations and investment, and global cultural forces that

operate outside the confines of the nation-state as a discrete

entity.

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5. manifestations of globalization

- the spatial reorganization of production - the interpenetration of industries across borders - the spread of financial markets - the diffusion of identical consumer goods to distant countries- massive transfers of population : mainly within the South as

well as from the South and the East to the West - resultant conflicts between immigrant and established

communities in formerly tight-knit neighborhoods - an emerging worldwide (though not universal) preference for

democracy

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6. Core theses on globalization

(1a) 'globalizaion' is a transformation of social geography marked by the growth of supraterritorial spaces

but

(1b) globalization does not entail the end of territorial geography; territoriality and supraterritoriality coexist in complex interrelations

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(2)  although globalization made earlier appearances, the trend has unfolded with unprecedented speeds and to unprecedented extents since the 1960s.

(3)  globalization appears today to have acquired certain juggernaut-like qualities, but it need not retain its present momentum indefinitely and could in principle reverse (though the chances of such a contraction seem remote at present)

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(4)  although globalization has touches almost every person and locate in today's world, the trend has spread unevenly, being most concentrated among propertied and professional classes, in the North, in towns, and among younger generations

(5)  globalization has had multifaceted causal dynamics, with the principal spurs having come from rationalist knowledge, capitalist production, various technological innovations and certain regulatory measures

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(6a) globalization has not displaced deeper social structures in relation to production (capitalism), governance (the state and bureaucratism more generally). community (the nation and communitarianism more generally) and knowledge (rationalism)

but (6b) globalization has prompted important changes to certain

attributes of capital, the state, the nation and modern rationalityand (6c) globalization has encouraged the growth of additional loci of

governance besides the state, the spread of additional forms of community besides the nation, and the development of additional types of knowledge besides modern rationality

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(7a) contemporary globalization has had some important positive consequences with respect to cultural regeneration, communications, decentralization of power, economic efficiency and the range of available products

         but

(7b) neoliberal policies toward globalization have had negative consequences in regard to increased ecological degradation, persistent provert, worsened working conditions, various cultural violences, widened arbitrary inequalities and deepened democratic

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(8a) globalization is not inherently good or bad; its outcomes are largely the result of human decisions that can be debated and changed

and (8b) a host of alternative policies could avoid the ills associated with

neoliberal  globalization but (8c) the political challenges of achieving effective full-scale reform

must not be underestimated

===> no simple or agreed definition of what constitutes globalization, nor any consensus about how far the process has advanced.

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7. the concept of globalization

- is as contested as popular

- still bears the birthmarks of its multi-disciplinary paternity

- is virtually impossible, amongst the myriad accounts and interpretations, for the would-be synthesizer to discern a simple meaning or referent for the term

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8. Defining Globalization

Ronald Robertson's definition of globalization :

"the compression of the world and the intensification of

consciousness of the world as a whole"

===> three issues

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(1) Globaization is a process rather than an end state.

- The term globalization does not imply that globalization is good or bad.

- Globalization indicates the victory of Western liberalism.- Globalization has the same effects everywhere.

These are questions for debate and investigation. The likelihood is that some people will benefit from the process of global integration more than others.

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(2) The divergence between what the structures of integration look like from a global perspective and from a local perspective.

- Social institutions come under the pressures of globalization, while patterns of though and meaning fail to come to terms with the fact.

- Coming to terms with globalization is as likely to involve rejection, for instance nationalist reactions, as acceptance.

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- Everyday life may be shaped by the functioning of the global economy without the affected individuals being aware of it.

- At the same time events that from New York look like the triumph of liberal values may look from Teheran like the imperialist machinations of the Great Satan.

- People may not be conscious of globalization, and even if they are they will respond to it differently.

- Globalization should not be read as creating a uniform response.

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(3) What is being compressed is space.

- All human activities take place somewhere. The compression of space implies that individuals and communities which have been separate or only loosely connected and pulled together.

- The multiplicity of human social organizations are forced into closer contact and find themselves dependent on each other. Contact breeds change and conflict.

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- New social and cultural forms emerge. The world's economic system becomes more interdependent and people and ideas move around the world in greater numbers, propelled by what geographers term 'space adjusting technologies' of communication and transport.

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- As communication becomes more reliable, forms of organization shift to take this reality into account. These developments simultaneously aid a movement towards homogenization. Different places become more alike; architecture, food, TV, clothes, values become more similar.

'Global' is a spatial term rather than a political one like 'state.' The discourse of 'globalization' argues for seeing the world a single place, albeit one with a complex and diverse social system. An understanding of this system requires the ability to make sense of a world of simultaneous diversity.

- Kristin Ross "time ... excludes and subordinates where space tolerates and coordinates."

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This spatial logic is emphasized by Giddens:

Globalization implies a pattern of society where social relationships are conducted across great distances. Actions and relationships reach across space to shape social life. For each place these relations pose the risk of destruction or pollution beyond direct control.

Globalization does not abolish difference or power, but it does change the context of politics. The corollary of the compression of space is the expansion of the horizon of political action.

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New possibilities, values, allies, enemies become open to individuals and groups, and the world becomes a bigger place containing more possibilities. For instance, a transnational movement emerges to save the habitat of Amazonian Indians.

The global media network carries the message and under international pressure legislation is passed to protect the endangered region. The irony is that some of the Indians then discover that they can make a lot of money out of the natural resources that their newly protected land can provide.

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8-1. no simple or agreed definition on globalization

There is no simple or agreed definition of what constitutes globalization, nor any consensus about how far the process has advanced, and in which areas.

Globalization: making the world a single place

- ‘Globalization refers to all those processes by which the peoples of the world are incorporated into a single world society, global society.’ (Martin Albrow 1990)

- ‘Globalization can ··· be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.’ (Anthony Giddens 1990)

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- ‘Die Globalisierung ··· global networking that has welded together previously disparate and isolated communities on this planet into mutual dependence and unity of “one world”.’ (Emanuel Richter, translated from German.)

- ‘the characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new competitive environment that accelerates these processes, and the internationalizing of the state ··· making state into agencies of the globalizing world.’ (Robert Cox 1994)

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- ‘The world is becoming a global shopping mall in which ideas and products are available everywhere at the same time.’ (Rosabeth Moss Kanter 1995)

- ‘Globalization is what we in the Third World have for several centuries called colonization.’ (Martin Khor 1995)

- ‘Globalization can be thought of as a process (or set or processes) which embodies a transformation of the spatial organization of social relations and transaction.’ (David Held et al. 1999)

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9. Globalization: a social theory & a depiction

- Globalization is considered to be not merely a social theory, but

a depiction of a new social reality with potentially momentous

significance.

- Virtually all accounts of globalization recognize that it is multi-

dimensional, even if some feature are deemed more ‘essential’

to it than others. So, There is not a single globalization, only

globalizations.

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10. the multi-dimensionality of globalization

Given the multi-dimensionality, it is scarcely surprising that

globalization is approached in diverse ways. To the extent that

there is a unifying theme to these conceptions, it relates to the

idea of decreasing territorialization, or to the diminishing

political significance of traditional territorial divisions:

“Globalization has challenged dominant conceptions of political

space in International Relations.”

“A global social system in which there is no longer a frontier

between internal and external.” 51

11. J. A. Scholte’s three conceptions of globalization

• Jan Aart Scholte’s three conceptions of globalization

(1) cross-border relations (2) open-border relations (3) trans-border relations : “is the newest and offers the most

distinctive and helpful insight into contemporary world affairs.”

“Borders are not so much crossed or opened as transcended.”

=> This account is further elaborated when he associates globalization with the transcendances without distance and relatively disconnected from particular location.

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12. Globalization: the terrestrial activities of states

Globalization is something going on ‘out there’, above and beyond the terrestrial activities of states.

To describe the key attribute of globalization as the transcendence of borders equally risks losing sight of this statist dimension.

Accordingly, the more mystical accounts of globalization need to be grounded in appropriate theories of the state, and not presented simply as descriptions of spatial transcendence.

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13. the normative agendas of globalization

- no single conception of globalization

- globalization is a set of social, economic, and political conditions that can be analysed objectively: there is no need to adopt any normative position in relation to it.

R. Cox: two separate meanings of globalization: one is simply the extant 'complex of forces,' while the other denotes an ideology within which the 'forces and policies ··· came to be regarded as inevitable.'

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Scott: globalization as a 'political project' and he asks rhetorically whether we, ‘are assisting the process of globalization by providing people with persuasive argument sot the effect that little can be done in the face of these enormous economic, political and social developments.’

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14. Globalization: a value-neutral development

Globalization is a value-neutral development.

However, some critics

(1) simply the another phase of exploitative capitalism

(2) a pretext for socially regressive governmental economic policies,

(3) and means by which both domestic and international inequalities are further entrenched.

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15. Origins of Globalization - three possibilities

(1) civilization

Globalization dates to the origins of civilization itself and is thus at least five thousand years old.

- When groups of people first came into contact with one another through conquest, trade, and migration, the glove began to shrink.

- Urbanization may be regarded as an integral part of this process of intensifying communication and economic intercourse.

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- Religion is another important aspect of this scenario. For example, it is said that Islamic globalization began many centuries before the current idiom of globalization was considered.

(2) capitalism

Growing out of world-system theory, a different perspective is that globalization originated with the development of capitalism in Western Europe in the sixteenth century.

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- According to this view, decisive shifts in the relationship between capital and labor accompanied by major technological innovations enabled capitalism to encompass the entire globe.

- A new type of economy and social relations thus swept the world, deranging precapitalist formations and incorporating the remnants in a very different system whose main feature is the combination of competitive markets oriented to profit maximization, wage labor, and the private ownership of the major means of production.

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(3) change of capitalism

Capitalism itself has changed in fundamental ways since its inception.

- The 1970s marked an important turning point, beginning with deep recession in the Western countries.

- This downturn had wide ramifications, certainly in many developing countries.

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- By the late 1970s, the hopes of a new international economic order, a reform package proposed by leaders from the developing world, were dashed, and the socialist countries experienced economic shortfalls.

- The Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates collapsed. Many developing countries abandoned import substitution in favor of export promotion in an attempt to secure foreign exchange.

- Debt structures mounted appreciable, and several countries felt the sting of financial and other forms of market discipline.

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- The new strategies speeded a restructuring of production away form the old fordist industries and toward more flexible, capital- and technology-intensive operations.

- With technological advances, the intensification of this trend resulted in the weakening of trade union power, reductions in social expenditure, deregulation, privatization, and an emphasis on enhancing competitiveness: in short, a distinctive balance of forces.

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Which interpretation is correct?

Is globalization five thousand years, four centuries, or a few decades old?

Does the debate over this historical trajectory come down to the long run versus a medium span versus a more recent constellation of structures?

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I think not.

Viewed historically, globalization may be best understood in terms of its continuities and discontinuities with the past. Of cardinal importance, the temporal and spatial reorganization of production has indeed intensified competition - a hallmark of capitalism, itself born out of anterior social systems - to a new level known as hypercompetition.

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If so, neoliberal globalization may be regarded as the contemporary phase of capitalism.

That is,

* the period before the sixteenth century may be construed as a time of incipient globalization.

* A second period, from the inception of capitalism in the West until the early 1970s, was an era of bridging globalization.

* Third, the period since the early 1970s comprises accelerated globalization.

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