0Galdman Gandirea strategica
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S U M M E R 2 0 0 7 V O L . 48 N O . 4
Ellen F.Goldman
Strategic
Thinking
At
theTop
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Please note that gray
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intentionally removed.
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L e a d e r s h i p
Strategic Thinking
At the TopStrategic thinking is generally considered important to a companys per-formance.1 Indeed, some have
advocated for companies to develop the strategic thinking of their executives as a core competency. But how exactly
should organizations accomplish this? Past studies on the subject have been limited, typically focusing on singular
teaching methods, experiences or plan-ning processes.2 As such, the research has yielded little insight into the
broader picture of how individuals tend to acquire expertise in strategic thinking. What types of work experiences,
for example, are more important than others,
and do they need to follow any specific chronology?
To answer these and other questions, I conducted a study that identified executives who were considered
the top strategic thinkers in their industry.3 (See About the Research, p.76.) The study then investigated the
totality of experiences (educational, job related or other) that contributed to the high ability of those
individuals. In addition, the research investigated the different ways in which the executives acquired their
expertise in strategic thinking a process that typically took more than a decade.
The data showed that strategic thinking arises from 10 specific types of experiences for instance,
spearheading a major growth initiative or dealing with a threat to organizational survival. Moreover,
executives appear to gain their expertise in strategic thinking through one of three developmental pat-
terns. These findings help demystify the process by which strategic thinking is learned, offering
important implications for management development and the practice of strategy.
Defining Strategic ThinkingFirst, though, what exactly is strategic thinking? Although numerous books and articles purport to cover the
subject, they typically deal more with strategic planning and strategic management. According to Henry Mintzberg,
the man-agement guru, Many practitioners and theorists have wrongly assumed that strategic planning, strategic
thinking and strategy making are all synonymous, at least in best practice.4 To avoid any confusion, my study used
the following definition: Strategic thinking is a distinctive management activity whose pur-pose is to discover
novel, imaginative strategies which can rewrite the rules of
Ellen F. Goldmanis a visiting assistant professor of human and organizational learningin the Graduate School of
Education and Human Development at George Washington University. She is also the principal of Growth Partners, a
Reston, Virginia-based consul-tancy that specializes in strategic thinking. Comment on this article or contact the
author through [email protected].
Expertise in
strategic thinking is
not the product of
innate ability and
pure serendipity. It
arises from specific
experiences
(personal,
interpersonal,
organizational and
external) which
occur over 10 or
more years.
Ellen F. Goldman
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L e a d e r s h i p
the competitive game; and to envision potential futures signifi-cantly
different from the present.5 Furthermore, strategic thinking was
specified as being conceptual, systems-oriented, directional (linking
the future with the past) and opportunistic.6
A related question is whether strategic thinking is an innate skill
or one that can be acquired. This question is at the heart of every
discussion of individual abilities. But even those leadership theorists
who believe in inherent mental processing capabilities7 note that such
abilities must be enhanced as part of management development. My
study was concerned with identifying the ex-periences that
contributed to the development of expertise in strategic thinking, not
with measuring any levels of cognitive functioning. As such, the
nature-versus-nurture argument was moot to this research.
Interestingly, the study participants volun-teered views that spanned
the nature/nurture spectrum, with
most falling somewhere in the middle. It should be noted, how-
ever, that even the individual with the strongest pronature view
felt that experiences were still necessary to develop a persons
strategic thinking ability. And most participants felt that without
some hard-wiring, learning to think strategically would be more
difficult but not impossible.
Ten Contributing Experiences
The study identified 10 experiences that contributed to the devel-opment
of a persons ability to think strategically, and those experiences
represented four levels of interaction: personal, in-terpersonal,
organizational and external. (See Ten Experiences That Contribute to
the Ability to Think Strategically.) Every ex-ecutive did not benefit
from all 10 experiences, and no two executives had the same set of
experiences. But each individual
About the Research
The goal of this study was to identify how expertise in
strategic thinking develops. Given the complexity of
the process, the research was limited to one industry
healthcare and to only the provider segment
within that industry. A technique known as social
labelingi was used to select the referral sources,
who were ex-perienced healthcare strategy
consultants and leaders of professional
organizations. The sources were then asked to
identify two or three individuals with whom they had
worked and who met the studys specific definition of
an expert strategic thinker.
A pool of 36 potential executives was generated,
from which 10 were ultimately selected to participate.
The individuals were all CEOs and were
representative of the general demographics of U.S.
health-care CEOs with respect to geographic region,
setting of the organization (urban versus suburban),
type of organization (teaching versus community) and
gender (male versus female). The professional work
experience of the participants ranged from 23 to 40
years.
The Seidman phenomenological in-terviewing
techniqueii was utilized to gather data. The process
consisted of three 90-minute interviews with each
participant. The first interview estab-lished the
context for the participants experiences; the second
focused on the reconstruction of their experiences
and their developmental process; and the third
encouraged reflection on the meaning of that
process. The inter-views, which were all audiotaped,
utilized a semistructured protocol, and Seidmans
criteria of sufficient numbers to reflect the range of
participants and saturation of information was
reached at 10 participants.
Based on the comments provided by the
participants, graphic maps of their experiences were
prepared. The figures were used in subsequent
interviews in a manner similar to the way in which
cogni-tive maps are used in research on strategic
decision making: to focus peo-ples attention, trigger
their memory, reveal gaps in information, highlight
key factors related to their experiences and
enhance the understanding and
impor-tance attached to those
experiences.iii The mapping
process also provided the
participants with the opportunity
to work collaboratively with the
researcher during the discovery
process, and it pro-duced a
tangible product that resulted
from the time the participants
invested in the study.
The interviews weretranscribed, and the resulting
15,000 pages of data were
analyzed, first by reducing the
volume of information to what
was most important and
interesting, then by capturing the
es-sence of the entire experience
of becoming an expert strategic
thinker for the different
participants (through the
preparation of individual profiles),
and fi-nally by identifying
thematic connections across all
the data.iv Numerous steps
helped ensure the
trustworthiness of the study,
including researcher epoche, a
prolonged engagement with the
partici-pants, triangulation of
data, member checks, peer
debriefing, peer code check-ing
and the establishment of an
audit-like trail.v
1. J. Shanteau, Psychological Characteristics and Strategies of Expert Decision Makers, Acta Psychologica 68 (September 1988): 203-215; and R.J. Sternberg, Cognitive Conceptions of
Expertise, International Journal of Expert Systems 7, no. 1 (1994): 1-12.
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2. I. Seidman, Interviewing As Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences, 2nd ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1998).
3. C.M. Fiol and A.S. Huff, Maps For Managers: Where Are We? Where Do We Go From Here? Journal of Management Studies 29, no. 3 (May 1992): 267-285.
4. C. Moustakas, Phenomenological Research Methods (Thousand Oak, California: Sage Publications, 1994).
5. Y.S. Lincoln and E.G. Guba, Naturalistic Inquiry (Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications, 1985).
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described at least one experience at
Ten Experiences That Contribute to the Ability to Think Strategicallyeach of the four levels of interaction.
Family Upbringing/EducationFamilyup- Expertise in strategic thinking arises from the contributions of 10 experiences that
bringing and education are grouped can be grouped into four levels of interaction: personal, interpersonal, organiza-
together because the study participants tional and external. Every executive in the research study did not benefit from alldiscussed them interchangeably; the 10 experiences, but each individual reported at least one experience at each of the
four levels of interaction.
two types of experiences typically oc-
curred simultaneously, reinforcing one
another. One aspect noted was the Level of Interaction Experiencevalue of exploring different perspec-
Personal Family Upbringing/Education
tives, for example, through travel andGeneral Work Experiences
exposure to different cultures as well asBecoming a CEO
through debate training and practice of
Interpersonal Being Mentored
the Socratic method.Being Challenged By a Key Colleague
General Work Experiences The partici- Organizational Monitoring Results/Benchmarkingpants cited experience in a variety of Doing Strategic Planning
organizational types and locations, Spearheading a Major Growth Initiative
which provided exposure to numerous External Dealing With a Threat to Organizational Survival
strategic issues and familiarity with a Vicarious Experiencesbreadth of strategies. The most impor-
tant factor here was the responsibilityfor significant projects (for example, implementing the merger
of tions vice president of planning. In general, the interactions
two organizations, evaluating a business for sale or turning around were private and spontaneous, with a wide range in tone from
an organization that was facing bankruptcy) and the freedom to relaxed, informal conversations to highly aggressive, confronta-
make most, if not all, of the decisions related to those initiatives. tional exchanges.
Becoming a CEO This experience is somewhat paradoxical.Many
Monitoring Results/BenchmarkingThe participants cited theim-
boards want individuals who already have expertise in strategic
portance of their involvement in monitoring the operationaland
thinking as their CEOs. But many of the study participants cited market performance of their organizations. Such efforts were
becoming a CEO as important to the development of their stra-
usually extensive and fairly sophisticated. Market data, for
ex-
tegic thinking because, with that promotion, they gained access
ample, were often segmented by geography anddemographics,
to important information (for instance, the views of important with information on purchaser preferences and use, and views ofexternal parties) which enabled a big picture view of their
busi- competitors detailed by the various market segments. Other keyness. [Note: All the individuals that the study identified asexperts data tracked each market segments stated preferences in relation
in strategic thinking were CEOs, even though this attribute was to the actual behavior of those customers.
not a criterion in the selection process.]
Doing Strategic PlanningThe development of strategic thinkingBeing Mentored Many executives have mentors, but not allmen- ability is enhanced by participation in strategic planning proc-
tors help others to develop their strategic thinking. Those who do esses with three characteristics. The first is having planning
are individuals who are in frequent contact with the executive (at sessions with management teams on a regular basis, often month
least once daily), providing immediate feedback. Moreover, their or quarterly. The second is preparation for these sessions, such ainfluence starts early in an executives career, within a few years the required reading of materials that help focus peoples
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of think-that individuals first job, perhaps as a first
boss. ing and provide a sense of the meetings purpose. The third is thformal output of the planning process: often an overall planfol-
Being Challenged By a Key ColleagueColleagues played an impor-lowed by business-unit goals and tactical plans. But even less
tant role by challenging the thinking of the executives. structured output establishing a general direction and im-
Individuals performing this role worked very closely with the mediate next steps, for example can help develop an executivexecutive, for example, as his boss, board chairman or organiza- strategic thinking.
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years with a wide range of frequency: The interaction could occur
monthly for a few hours, quarterly for one day or three days twice
annually. In many cases, the regular contact is enhanced by small group
interactions and social time, for example, a monthly pro-fessional
meeting of CEOs that includes sessions in which people break into
smaller groups (perhaps geared toward specific topics) followed by
dinner with ample time for networking opportuni-ties. The study
participants also noted the benefit of vicarious experiences gained
through indirect means, such as by reading business publications.
Generally speaking, each of the 10 experiences took place over a
significant period of time, often in excess of one year, and re-quired
considerable responsibility on the part of the executive
usually the individual had to perform tasks that were materi-
ally new to him. Some of the experiences catalyzed others, but
they did not occur in any specific order (except for the obvious
categories of family upbringing/education, being mentored,
and becoming a CEO).
In addition to the 10 experiences, the study identified two other
important factors. The first was personal characteristics, specifically,
being methodical, balanced, goal-oriented, curious, receptive to
criticism, detail-oriented, a perfectionist and a mav-erick. The second
was a supportive work environment, including
the presence of a strong management team that frees up
the CEOs time to focus on strategic issues and
contributes to his thinking. Also of impor-tance was the
attitude of the board, particularly regarding failure. As
one executive explained, When you do make a
mistake, theyre worried about fixing the problem, not
fixing the blame. Neither of these factors is sufficient to
develop strategic thinking ability without the requisite ex- periences described earlier, but they may amplify the
value of those experiences.
Significant AvidAlone Time
Past
ColleaguesinProfessionalOrganizations
Planning NaturalCuriosity
Retreats
Meetings withOther Executives General Work
FathersApproach
to Life
The OverallDevelopmentalProcess
The development of an
executives ability to think
strategically develops gradually
over a considerable amount of
time. Most participants in the
study said they took more than
10 years to acquire their
expertise, and during that time
their confidence grew as they
became more comfortable
dealing with increasing levels
of business complexity and
ambiguity. Interestingly, the
executives described their
development in a manner
consistent with one of three
distinct patterns. The patterns,
In this developmental pattern, expertise in strategic thinking arises from
the culmination of various experiences (small ovals) which provide new
and different perspectives. The experiences occur over years, and eachis fueled by the individuals natural curiosity (large oval). This figure is a
reproduction of the actual map created during interactions with one
executive in the study who best exemplified this particular pattern of
development.
L e a d e r s h i p
Spearheading a Major Growth Initiative These projects
must in-volve significant complexity, be both capital and labor
intensive and require at least a year to complete. Examples include
estab-lishing a new program (developing the business case,
obtaining regulatory approval, overseeing facility construction and
re-cruiting staff), acquiring an organization (identifying,
negotiating with and acclimating the new group) and building a
new facility (that is, overseeing its construction). As with the
category of general work experiences, the freedom to make
important deci-sions makes these projects valuable to the
development of strategic thinking ability.
Dealing With a Threat to Organizational Survival The
types of threats that most contribute to the development of
strategic thinking are those that involve attempts at control by
another entity, which occur repeatedly and that could have a severe
impact on the ex-ecutives organization. Such experiences
typically force a major rethinking of issues that strike at the core of
the individuals in-volved, substantially sharpening their focus.
Vicarious Experiences This category includes interactions
withothers in similar roles, with the frequency of contact being animportant factor. Usually, the contact is maintained for several
Pattern 1: The Development of Understanding
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which can best be understood through
graphic maps that were created with the
participants, provide valu-able insights
into how expertise in strategic
thinking is acquired.
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Pattern 2: The Practice of Rational Planning
In this developmental pattern, expertise in strategic thinking is the result of the executive continually asking the same three
questions (large ovals): Where are we going? How are we getting there? Are we executing efficiently? The arrows denote the flow
of knowledge from the various experiences (small ovals) to the three questions. Note that an experience can provide value to more
than one of the questions. This figure is a reproduction of the actual map created during interactions with one executive in the
study who best exemplified this particular pattern of development.
BossData Benchmarks Mentors
QuestionMonitoring Best
of LegacyPractices Logical
Evaluation ofDesired
AlternativesMetrics Time
Where UseDialogue
Problems/ Going? with Team How GettingComplaints (Vision) Past
There?Successes
(Models) (Strategies)
Community MethodicalViews Sense of
Thinker MistakesGeneral Ownership
Business BetaKnowledge After-the-Fact(Standards) Groups
Critique
Is ExecutionEfficient?
(Implementation)
Pattern 1 The first pattern reflects a repetitive process of usingpast experiences to
consider alternative perspectives. (See Pat-tern 1: The Development of
Understanding.) One executive described the process this way: Theres a solution to
every prob-lem, and if you cant come up with it, you need to look at the problem
from a different angle. The key ingredient here is a natu-ral curiosity that fuels the
executives search for greater understanding, thus expanding his ability to think
strategically. The result: The executive learns to see all sides of an issue and is able to
alter the angle from which he views a problem to search for a better solution. In this
manner through the exploration of different perspectives repeatedly over time
the executive develops expertise in strategic thinking.
Pattern 2 This pattern includes the three major steps of a logical planning process
understanding where you are, determining where you want to be and detailing how
to get there with each step informed by information, experience (both actual and
vi-carious) and discussion. (See Pattern 2: The Practice of Rational Planning.) Key
features include the use of data to fuel thinking
and the repeated application of the three
steps, no matter how big or small the
issue, with expertise in strategic thinking
acquired after years of honing the
practice.
Pattern 3 The final developmental pattern is
portrayed as thetackling of bigger and bigger
business challenges, with the execu-tives
ability to think strategically growing
continuously over time. (See Pattern 3: The
Completion of a Hierarchy of Chal-lenges, p.
80.) Key features include modest initial
activity followed by a step-like progression.
The catalysts to movement can be ei-ther
positive or negative: opportunities to build
new services as well as pressures fromfinancial losses, takeover attempts and other
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challenges to survival. Expertise in thinking strategically is acquired by meeting and
effectively dealing with the challenges, with each experience improving the executives
ability.
The three patterns reflect how executives described the ways in which they learned to
think strategically. They illustrate both what occurred (specifically, the 10 experiences)
and how the ex-ecutives approached those
experiences (namely, by considering different
perspectives, by using a planning model or by
just div-
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L e a d e r s h i p
Pattern 3: The Completion of a Hierarchy of Challenges
In this developmental pattern, expertise
in strategic thinking results from the
executive tackling increasingly difficult
chal-lenges over the course of years.
During this time period, the upward
direction of the red line (from left to
right) indicates the individuals
increasing ability to think strategically,
and the arrows show how the different
experiences (ovals) influence each
other. This figure is a reproduction of
the actual map created dur-ing
interactions with one executive in the
study who best exemplified this
particular pattern of development.
CommunityInvolvement
Political
Exposure
Organizational(Structure)Change
NewBoss
Scenario
EvaluationExecutive
Payment Education
Change
Dialogue with
Doing a External PartiesMaster Plan Trade
OrganizationsEvaluating an Board
General Acquisition Interactions
Being Experience ConsultantsTeam and Questions
Mentored ObservationCommunity
Dialogue
ing in and doing what was needed). The
salient point here is that all the
executives in the study described their
development in a manner that was
consistent with one of the three patterns.
Improving StrategicThinking
The study results have a number of
implications for companies in their
efforts to improve the strategic
thinking of their execu-tives. The
important thing to remember, though,
is that any development program
must be highly individual
because no two people will
absorb the same experience in
exactly the same way.
Nevertheless, some general
guidelines do apply. Experi-ences that contribute most to
the development of strategic
thinking tend to take place
over a year or more and
require significant
responsibility on the part of
the individual usu-ally the
performance of a task that is
materially new to that person.
Moreover, its crucial to
remember that the develop-
ment of expertise in strategic
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thinking takes at least a decade,
during which time many of those
experiences must be continu-ally
repeated. With all this in mind, the
following approaches should benefit
companies in their efforts to develop
the stra-tegic thinking of their
managers.
Include Strategic Thinking As a
Formal Component of
Management Development
Programs One of the most remarkable
findings of the
study was the tacit expectationthat an executive would, all of a
sudden, think strategically upon
becoming a CEO. But, clearly, if
companies want expertise in
strategic thinking they must take
the necessary steps to nurture this
ability. Management development
programs should identify specific
experiences (spearheading a
growth initiative, for instance)
and target their inclusion in the
careers of high-potential
executives. Although individual
in na-ture, such experiences
should, taken together, cross all
four levels of interaction:
personal, interpersonal,
organizational and envi-
ronmental. Moreover, each
experience should contain the
necessary attributes (being
mentored, for example, must
include frequent contact andimmediate feedback). Finally, the
experi-ences should be preceded
by a briefing on strategy theory
and vocabulary (if needed) to
ensure that the executive
understands key concepts that
will help him obtain the
maximum benefits from those
experiences.
Require Executives to
Develop the Strategic
Thinking of Their Sub-
ordinates Because strategic
thinking develops gradually over a
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long period of time, and because general work experiences and
being mentored are two important experiences during this growth,
superiors are in a key position to influence their sub-ordinates
development. As such, companies should include this
responsibility as a part of an executives performance re-view:
What projects and roles have you given your subordinates to
develop their strategic thinking? Are these assignments of
sufficient size, and have your subordinates been given the requi-
site freedom to act? And have your efforts resulted in noticeable
improvements in their strategic thinking, however subjectively
determined?
Encourage Early Participation in Strategic Planning and Benchmarking
Activities These two experiences contribute significantly to im-
portant procedural knowledge related to strategic thinking. Without this
knowledge, executives can waste considerable time by attempting
strategy development or implementation in inef-ficient or inappropriate
ways. Of course, companies will find it impractical for all their managers
to be involved in every strategic planning activity. Nevertheless,
executives can also be encouraged to participate in strategic planning
with other organizations, for example, with subsidiaries, professional
associations, community groups or small, local businesses.
Support Activities That Incorporate Experiential Learning
Interest-ingly, with respect to the development of strategic thinking, the
study participants attributed little value to graduate professional
programs. Thus, when managers do undertake such programs, the
curriculum should incorporate experience in addition to the teaching of
theory, for example, through the inclusion of oppor-tunities to do
strategic planning and benchmarking, discussion of vicarious experiences(perhaps by having experts mentor nov-ices) and assignments that
broaden an individuals perspective through observation, dialogue and
debate.
Maximize the Benefits of Strategic Planning Sessions
Companiesshould hold strategic planning sessions on a regular basis
(monthly or quarterly, for example), and those meetings should have
a high degree of process regularity, with an emphasis on preparation:
reviewing materials and thinking about specific questions that are
provided in advance. In addition, the meet-ings should include
content that expands peoples perspectives (for example, comparative
market information from another industry or the viewpoint of a
constituency that is seldom heard). During these sessions, the
company should ensure that the participants (not the planning staff or
outside consultants) perform the information synthesis and
interpretation. After all, the firm wants to develop the strategic
thinking of the partici-pants and not necessarily that of the staff or
consultants. Staff members could, however, provide valuable input
into manage-
ment development plans, because they might be able to identify
specific aspects of strategic thinking that are lacking in indi-
vidual executives.
business schools and others interested in management
education and development have vigorously debated how best to
teach strategy to future leaders. Some experts have ques-tioned
whether the topic should be taught at all or at least whether it
should be taught to managers. Often missing from the debate
however, has been any in-depth discussion of how individualslearn to think strategically in the first place. What specific
experiences are important and how do they contribute? Moreover
what are the different ways in which people absorb those
experiences to develop the ability to think strategically? Without
adequate answers to these questions, its no wonder that schools
have had trouble teaching strategy to students and that many
companies have difficulty developing the strategic thinking of
their executives.
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Reprint 48418.
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