SubstanceswithapHbelow7arecalledAcids.SubstanceswithapHabove7arecalledBases.SubstanceswithapHof7areNeutral.Wateristheonlyneutralsubstance.

ThepHscaleactuallymeasurestheamountofHYDROGENIONS(H+)thatarepresentinasolution.pHcouldstandfor“THEPOWEROFHYDROGEN.”ThelowerthepHvalue,thegreatertheamountofhydrogenions(H+)presentinthesolution

YouCANPassYourBiologySOL!S

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Step1:MakeanOBSERVATION.Thetwotypesare: →QUALITATIVE:Descriptions withoutnumber.(Ex)The bookisheavy. →QUANITATIVE:Descriptions thatusenumbers.(Ex)The bookhas250pages.Step2:MakeaHYPOTHESIS.Thisisaneducatedguessbasedonqualitativeandquantitativedata.⇒Scientistshouldlookfor2variablesintryingtofindanswerstotheproblem. ◊INDEPENDENTVARIABLE(IV) ­ThethingIchange ◊DEPENDENTVARIABLE(DV) ­ThethingImeasure

Step3:SetupaCONTROLLEDEXPERIMENT.Eachhas:

1. CONTROLGROUP:thegroupthatstaysthesame(doesn’treceivetheIV).It’sneededtocompare.

2. EXPERIMENTALGROUP:thegroupthatismanipulated(thegroupyouareperformingtheexperimenton).ThisgroupreceivestheIV.

Step4:MakeaCONCLUSIONorTHEORY

⇒ Ifthedatagatheredfromyourcontrolledexperimentsupportyourhypothesis,youacceptyourconclusion.⇒Ifthedatadoesn’tsupportyourhypothesis,startover!

HowtoIdentifyVariablesonaGraph:

*****ScientistsusetheSCIENTIFICMETHODtohelpthemanswerquestionsandsolveproblemsaboutthenaturalworld.*****

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Y­axisistheDV.

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X­axisistheIV.ThethingIchange

*Watermakeslifepossible!It’sauniversalsolvent,comesinthreestates,andhasahighspecificheattoregulatetemperature*ThechemicalformulaofwaterisH2O.Ithas2hydrogenand1oxygen.Waterhasapositiveside(hydrogen)andanegativeside(oxygen).Thesechargesallowwatertosticktootherthingsthatalsohaveacharge.HYDROGENBONDSholdwatertoitselfandtootherchargedsubstances.

Whenwaterstickstootherthings(likeacarwindow)ADHESIONistakingplace.WhenwaterstickstoitselfCOHESIONistakingplace

Watercomesin3states:solid,liquidorgas.Inthesolidstate(ice),waterislessdensethantheliquidstate.Icefloats!WaterhasaHIGHSPECIFICHEAT.Itcanabsorbalotofenergywithoutincreasingitsowntemperature.Thisiswhywatertakessolongtoboil!

Weusethispropertytohelpusregulateourbodytemperature.Whenourbodytemperaturegetstoohigh,westarttoPERSPIRE(sweat).

Wedonotwantourbodytemperaturetofluctuateverymuchbecauseitwouldalterchemicalreactions(METABOLISM).Whenmetabolismisthrownoff,HOMEOSTASIS(balance)isalsothrownoff.Thiscanleadtodeath!!!!

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*Alllivingthingsarecomposedof4macromolecules.Macromoleculesarelargepolymers(theprefix“poly”means“many”)thatarecomposedoflotsofsmallerbuildingblockscalledmonomers(theprefix“mono”means“one”).*

1. Carbohydrates:Theonly

macromoleculethatisusedforENERGY.CarbohydrateisafancywordforSUGAR.ThemostimportantsugarisGLUCOSE(C6H12O6).ThebuildingblocksofcarbohydratesareMONOSACCHARIDES.

2. Lipids:TheonlymacromoleculeusedtoSTOREENERGYandtoprovideINSULATION.Therearethreeclassesoflipids(fats,oils&waxes).ThebuildingblocksoflipidsareFATTYACIDS.

3. Proteins:TheonlymacromoleculethatcanSPEEDUPCHEMICALREACTIONSandprovideSTRUCTURE&SUPPORT.ThebuildingblocksofproteinsareAMINOACIDS.

4. NucleicAcids:TheonlymacromoleculesthatTRANSMITSHEREDITYINFORMATION.Therearetwotypesofnucleicacids:DNA&RNA.TheirbuildingblocksareNUCLEOTIDES.

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Enzyme

EnzymesareCATALYSTS.CatalystsSPEEDthingsup!Withoutenzymes,chemicalreactions(metabolism)wouldhappentooslowlytokeepyoualive.Enzymesareshapespecific.Enzymescanonlycatalyzereactants(Substrates)iftheycanfitinsidetheenzyme’sACTIVESITE.EnzymesspeedupchemicalreactionsbyLOWERINGACTIVATIONENERGY.Activationenergyistheamountofenergyneededtostartachemicalreaction.ActivationEnergyworkslikeaspeedbump.

• Thebiggertheactivationenergytheslowerthechemicalreaction

• Thesmallertheactivationenergythefasterthechemicalreaction.

*Enzymesarebiologicalcatalysts.Theyspeedupchemicalreactionsandregulatemetabolism.Enzymesareproteinsthatcanlowerachemicalreaction’sactivationenergy*

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*Themicroscopeisoneofthemostimportanttoolsinbiology.Itallowedscientiststodiscoverthecellandallofitsstructures.*

Oncethemicroscopewasinvented,ROBERTHOOKEwasabletoseeandnamethetinystructuresthatmakeuplifewhilestudyingcork.HewasthefirstpersontousethewordCELL.

……………………………….………..…… Microscopes&theCellTheareonly2thingsthatyouneedto

knowaboutmicroscopes:

1. DeterminingTotalMagnification:Multiplytheeyepiece(thatisalways10x)bytheobjectivelens(thelensesthatcanberotated)

10xObjectiveLens=TotalMag.

2. MakingaWet­MountSlide:Alwaysplacethecoversliponata45° Angletopreventairbubbles.

WiththehelpofHookeandotherscientistsworkingwiththemicroscope,theCELLTHEORYwascreated.THECELLTHEORY:

1. Alllivingthingsarecomposedofcells.

2. Cellsarethebasicunitsof

structureandfunctionoflife.

3. Cellscanonlycomefrompre‐existingcells. …

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Alllivingthingsaremadeupofonlyoneoftwotypeofcells:PROKARYOTICCELLSorEUKARYOTICCELLS.

• Prokaryotesaresimple,small,andlackanucleus.TheonlyexampleofaprokaryoteisBACTERIA.

• Eukaryotesarecomplex,large,andcontainanucleusandlotsoforganelles.Allprotists,fungji,plantsandanimalsaremadeupofeukaryoticcells.

****Everythinglivingthingsismadeupofatleastonecell.Cellsarethelowestlevelofstructureoflivingthingsthatcanstillperformalltheactivities(metabolism).****

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CellofEukaryotes

PlantCell AnimalCell

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****Eukaryotescontainmembrane‐boundORGANELLES.Eachorganelleperformsaspecificjobinthecelltohelpmaintainmetabolismandhomeostasis.****

1. NUCLEUS:Thisisthecontrolcenterofthecell.Itcontainsthecell’sDNAandcontrolsthecell’smetabolismandhomeostasis.

2. MITOCHONDRIA:Thisisthepowerplantofthecell.Thecell’senergysupply(ATP)ismadehereviaCELLULARRESPIRATION.

3. RIBOSOMES:Thesearethesitesofproteinsynthesisforthecell.

4. GOLGIAPPARATUS:Thisisthepostofficeofthecell.Itpackagesandexportsmaterialsinandaroundthecell.

5. ENDOPLASMICRETICULUM:Therearetwokinds:smoothandrough.Bothhelptomovethingsaroundthecell.Theyworklikeasystemofroadsinthecell.

6. LYSOSOMES:Thesearethegarbagecansofthecell.Theybreakdownwaste.

7. CHLOROPLAST:Thisisfoundinplantsandisthesiteofphotosynthesis.

8. CELLWALL:Thisisarigidlayerfoundontheoutsideofplantcells.Itgivesplantcellstheiruniquerectangularshape.

9. CELLMEMBRANE:Thissurroundsallcells.Itmaintainshomeostasisbycontrollingwhatcanenterandleavethecell. It’scomposedoftwolayersofPHOSPHOLIPIDS. ThePHOSPHOLIPIDBILAYERhasapolarheadandtwo

non‐polartails.Thisallowsthingsthataresmallandnon­polartocrossthemembranewithoutaskingforpermission.

Foodandrawmaterialsforchemicalreactionsmustbeabletocrossthemembrane.

Wastemustbeabletoleavethemembrane.

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****Substancesneedtobeabletotravelintoandoutofcellacrossthecellmembrane.Thismovementcaneitherhappen

spontaneously(byitself)orwiththeinputofenergy(ATP)****Therearetwotypesoftransport:PASSIVE&ACTIVE

1. PASSIVETRANSPORT:Thismovessubstancesacrossmembranesfromregionsofhighconcentrationtolowconcentrationwithoutenergy.

2. ACTIVETRANSPORT:Thismovessubstancesacrossmembranesfromregionsoflowconcentrationtohighconcentrationwithenergy(ATP) Examples:Endocytosis&

Exocytosis

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Thereare3typesofPASSIVETransport:

1. DIFFUSION:themovementofsubstancesfromaregionofhighconcentrationtolowconcentration.

2. OSMOSIS:themovementofwaterfromaregionofhighconcentrationtolowconcentration.

3. FACILITATEDDIFFISION:themovementofsubstancesfromhightolowwiththehelpofatransportprotein.

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****CELLULARRESPIRATIONandPHOTOSYNTHESISareprocessesthatallowcellstouseandmakeenergytokeepthecellalive.Theyhaveacyclicalrelationshipwithoneanother.Theydependononeanother!****

CellularRespiration Photosynthesis

CELLULARRESPIRATIONisaprocessthatturnssugar(glucoseC6H12O6)intousableenergyforthecell(ATP).HETEROTROPHS(organismswhocannotmaketheirownfood)usethisprocesstoreleaseATPfromfoodintheMITOCHONDRIA.

INPUT(Reactants):Mitochondriatakeinoxygenandglucose

OUTPUTS(Products):MitochondriareleasecarbondioxideandATP!!!!

PHOTOSYNTHESISisaprocessthatturnslightenergyfromthesunintofood(glucose)forplants.PlantsandorganismsthatmaketheirownfoodarecalledAUTOTROPHS.AutotrophsperformphotosynthesisintheirCHLOROPLASTS.

INPUT(Reactants):Chloroplaststakeincarbondioxideandsunlight.

OUTPUTS(Products):Chloroplastsreleaseoxygenandglucose.

CO2 O2

Glucose

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Mitochondria

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****DNAisadouble‐helixcomposedof2complementarystrands.Ithas4nucleotidescomposedofeitherA,T,C,orG:ApairswithT,GpairswithC.ThisstructuremakesDNAREPLICATIONandPROTEINSYNTHESISpossible.!****

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WhenDNAneedstodivide,DNAREPLICATIONbegins.TheweakhydrogenbondsthatareholdingthetwostrandsofDNAtogetherbreakapartandtheDNA“unzips.”ThetwooriginalstrandsofDNAthenbecometemplatesfornewdaughterstrandsofDNAthatwillform.

ChromosomeStructure:

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****TheprocessofturningDNAintoproteinsfollowsaspecificorder.Itstartsinthenucleusandendsattheribosome.****Frst,DNAisturnedintoMESSENGERRNA(mRNA).RNAistheskinnycousinofDNAwhichmeansitcanleavethenucleus.RNAissingle‐stranded.ItonestrandlooksalmostidenticaltoDNAwiththeexceptionofthenitrogenbaseURACIL.Uraciltakestheplaceofthymine.,soUpairswithA.

♦ MakingRNAfromDNAiscalledTRANSCRIPTION.

Next,themessagetransferredfromDNAtomRNAmakesitwaytotheribosome(thesiteofproteinsynthesis).

♦ MakingproteinsfrommRNAiscalledTRANSLATION.

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****DNAisthecell’sgeneticmaterial.Itmustbecopiedbeforethecellcandivide.Tohelpwiththis,theDNAispackaging

intostructurescalledCHROMOSOMES.Humanshave46chromosomesthatmustbecopiedexactlybeforethecellcandivide.TheprocessofcelldivisioniscalledMITOSIS.Mitosishas4steps:PROPHASE,METAPHASE,ANAPHASE&TELOPHASE.****

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****GENETICSisthestudyofheredity.AGENEisabasicunitofheredity.AnALLELEisoneoftwoormorealternativeformsofaspecificgene.Twoallelesmakeupagene.GREGORMENDELcrossedpeastodevelopthegenetictheorywestilluse.****Therearetwotypesofalleles:

‐DOMINANTALLELES:Theexpressedtrait.Representedbyacapitalletter.

‐RECESSIVEALLELES:Theunexpressedtrait.Representedbyalowercaseletter.Thetwoletters(representingtwoalleles)representanorganism’sGENOTYPE.Therearetwotypesofgenotypes:

‐HOMOZYGOUS:twoidenticalalleles (TT)or(tt)‐HETEROZYGOUS:twodifferent alleles(Tt)

Theexpressionofthegenotype(physicalappearanceofthegene)isthePHENOTYPE.Wecanusetheparentgenotypestopredictwhatoffspringmightlooklike.MonohybridcrossescanbecompletedbyusingaPUNNETSQUARE.

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Exampleofamonohybridcross:Consideracrossbetweenatruebreedingtallplant(TT)andatruebreedingshortplant(tt).

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****Alloflifecanbeclassifiedinoneof6kingdoms.Eachkingdomcanbebrokendownintoevensmallerunitsforclassification.Themoderndayclassificationsystemisbasedonatwo‐wordnamingsystemcalledBINOMIAL

NOMENCLATURE.Thisnamingsysteminvolvesanorganism’sGENUSandSPECIES.****

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The6kingdomsofthelifeare:1. Archaebacteria:Prokaryoticorganismsthatareonly

foundinextremeenvironments.2. Eubacteria:Single‐celled,prokaryoticorganismsthat

cancausesickness(Example:streptococcus&salmonella)

3. Protist:Single‐celled,eukaryoticorganismsthatcanbeeitherheterotrophic(protozoa)orautotrophic(algae).

4. Fungi:Multicellulareukaryoticorganismswithcellwallscomposedofchitin.Theseorganismsareexternaldigesters(heterotrophic).

5. Plant:Multicellulareukaryoticautotrophswithcellwallscomposedofcellulose.

6. Animal:Multicellulareukaryicheterotrophsthatdonothavecellwalls.

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****EVOLUTIONistheprocessbywhichspecieschangeovertime.It’sbroughtonbytheprocessofNATURALSELECTION.Naturalselectionallowsforindividualswithcertaintraitstosuccessfullysurviveandreproduce,passingthosetraitstothe

nextgeneration.****SPECIATIONistheprocessbywhichnewspeciesarise. Therearetwomechanismsthatcan

leadtonewspecies:o GeographicIsolation:the

physicalseparationofspeciespopulationsbygeographicbarriers(Example:oceansandmountains)

o ReproductiveIsolation:IsolationWITHOUTthepresenceofaphysicalbarrier.(Example:Onegroupofindividualsonlymatesinthefall,andanotheronlyreproducesinthespring.) …

…………………………………………………… ASPECIESisagroupofindividualsthatcaninterbreedandproduce

fertileoffspring.‐Thehorseandzebraarebothmembersoftheirownspecies.Howdoweknow?Whenweforcethemtomate,theiroff‐spring(azebroid)isnotfertile.

EvidenceforEvolution****Scientistshave3areasoffocusthatprovideevidenceforevolution.****

1.Fossils 2.Anatomy 3.Biochemistry

Scientistscanuselayersofundisturbedrocktodeterminetherelativeageoffossilizedorganisms.TheOLDESTfossilswillalwaysbeatthebottomofthecolumnandtheYOUNGESTatthetop.

ThistechniqueiscalledthePRINCIPLEOFSUPERPOSITION.

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HOMOLOGOUSSTRUCTURES:StructuresthatlookSIMILARtooneanother.ThesedemonstratedescentfromaCOMMONANCESTOR(DivergentEvolution)ANALOGOUSSTRUCTURES:Differentstructuresthatperformsimilarfunctions.Theenvironmentforcesunrelatedindividualstodevelopstructurestoperformsimilarfunction.NOCOMMONANCESTOR!(ConvergentEvolution)

Remember:OrganismsthathavemoreDNAincommonarecloselyrelated!Thismeansthatorganismsthathavemoreproteinsincommonarealsocloselyrelated.Lookattheaminoacidchainofunknownanimal:Met­Gly­Ser­Tyr­Tyr­Arg­His­His­Glu­LysItmostcloselyresembles?Horse:Met‐Gly‐Ser‐Ser‐Tyr‐Arg‐Arg‐Asp‐His‐GluDog:Met‐Gly‐Ser‐Tyr‐Tyr‐Arg‐His‐Asp‐Glu‐LysCat:Met‐Gly‐Ser‐Tyr‐Tyr‐Arg‐His‐His‐Arg‐CysMouse:Met‐Gly‐Ser‐Tyr‐Tyr‐Arg‐His‐Glu‐Val‐ValOurunknownanimalismostcloselyrelatedtothedog!There’sonly1differenceintheproteinsequence.

Met‐Gly‐Ser‐Tyr‐Tyr‐Arg‐His‐Asp‐Glu‐Lys ……………………………….………………………………