Writing research paper

Lin Lu, M.D., Ph.D （陆林）

National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University (北京大学中国药物依赖性研究所 )

Workshop Topics

Introduction to writing The anatomy of a research article - components of an article - selecting a title - determining authorship - presenting data responsibly

20-steps to research article - a step-by-step process for writing an article - choosing the right journal - outlining and writing - dealing with writer’s block - responding to reviewers’ comments

What is a “paper”?

Anatomy of a Research Article

• title• authors• affiliations• abstract• introduction

• methods • results• discussion• references• bibliography

Redundant publication

• What is “redundant”? - same data, different

journal - available in abstract form - data included in review

article - expansion of published

data set

• Why be concerned?

- inflation of publication record

- misuse of valuable space

- inaccurate impression of replication

. Basic science

. Clinic science

Why write?

• Contribute knowledge• Get feedback• Ensure science rigor • Built reputation

Authorship

• Criteria for inclusion

• Substantial intellectual contribution• Ability to deal with inquires• Approved final version of manuscript

Determining AuthorshipThe following individuals contributed in some way to the work reported in a

manuscript to be submitted for publication. Who should be listed as an author?

1. Lab chief – Contributed to the design of the experiments, and analysis and interpretation of the data; edited several drafts of the manuscripts.

2. Program director – obtained the funding for the research project, including the salaries, supplies and equipment necessary for the research.

3. Technician – Trained graduate student in the techniques used for their research; did all of the surgical procedures and some of the biochemical analyses.

4. Postdoctoral fellow – Questions arising from their research spurred the lab chief to examine this research topic. Contributed to discussions regarding the design of the experiments and the analysis and interpretation of the data.

Determining Authorship5. Graduate student – Contributed to the design of the experiments;

conducted the experiments; responsible for most of the analysis and the interpretation of the data; wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and edited several subsequent versions.

6. Undergraduate research assistant – performed some of the sample analysis.

7. Glassware washer – Employed special procedures for washing and sterilizing glassware to meet the strict requirements in the experimental protocol.

8. Animal caretaker – provided specialized care needed to ensure the survival of the animals in the study.

9. Departmental colleague – Read a complete draft of the manuscript and provided extensive comments on both the organization and style.

10. Colleague at another university – Shared with the lab chief a unique reagent that they (the colleague) had developed, was not commercially available, and was central to the experiments.

Acknowledgments• Technical assistance • Advice on research or manuscript• Gifts of materials • Assistance in repairing manuscript• Financial assistance

Acknowledgments

“This work was supported by NIH (NS19806) and Biotech, Inc. A preliminary report was presented at the Pharmacology Society, May 25, 1999. We thank Jose Guera for technical assistance and assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. One of the authors (JD) is a paid consultant for Biotech, Inc.”

Importance of financial disclosure

• Source of support can influence results • Disclosure will

- remind you

- alert reader• Failure to disclose can raise alarms

Summary Conclusion formatProvides quick abstract may attract more attentionOversimplifies may be wrong

Researchers measured how quickly a group of 7-year old boys in a Chicago elementary school learned to spell a set of one-syllable words taken from the Jefferson Word List for Second Graders.

One group of children was provided with visual instruction only, one

with auditory instruction only, and one with both.

The children receiving both types of instruction made fewer errors (87±4% correct ) than did those receiving only auditory (32±8%) or only visual cues (76±5%).

TitleThe path of getting knowledgeMost widely read components of a paper(The title/ Last 1-2 sentences of Abstract)

Abstract

proper organization

1. Introduction

2. Method

3. Results (past tense) discussion

4. Final summary

“The effect on body weight is discussed.”

“ Body weight was increased.”

“Body weight increased 43 ± 2% over a 6-day period.”

Introduction

• What is function ?

• Proper organization

1. what is the state of knowledge

2. what is the question

3. statement of hypothesis (optional)

4. summary of results (optional)

Scholarship

• Acknowledge source of ideas• Cite key papers

- earliest observations

- original articles rather than reviews

Methods

• What is its functions ?• Evaluation/replication

• How much detail to present ?

- method

- equipment models

- reagents

- sources (company, City, State)

• Sharing materials not otherwise available

- reagents

- transgenic animals

- software programs

Tense in Results section

Introductory statement: present tense

“ It is well-known that DTA decreases after chronic cocaine exposure”

But in Results section: past tense

“ Within 6 months of withdrawal, DTA decreased by 20 ± 6%.”

Discussion within Results sectionSeparation of interpretation from observationsExceptions - “Short communication” - aid in transition

Aid in transition The results of the previous experiment suggested to us that the dopamine released was not derived from vesicular stores but from the cytoplasm. To test this possibility…

Responsible presentation of data

High crimes

• Fabrication: data that are made up • Falsification: data that are altered

- data added or moved

- data deleted without statistical justification• Plagiarism: using the words or ideas of others without attribution• Never mislead

- exaggerate

- minimize

- obscure• Eliminate reasonable sources of confusion• The responsibility is yours, not the reader’s.

Discussion

1. Your observations and their relationships

2. Exceptions

3. Relation to previous work

4. Theoretical or practical implications

5. Summary and conclusions

Discussion: Common problems

• Poorly organized• Inadequate scholarship• Repeats introduction• Doesn’t compare results w/ others• No discussion of alternative explanations

Results: Common problems• Present tense• Too little transition• Too much discussion• logical

Bibliography

• What is its function• Which references to cite

- primary versus secondary

- original versus most recent

- theirs versus yours

• How may to cite

- per point

- per paper

• Do you have to have read every reference?• What about foreign language reference?• What if you can not obtain reference?

Responsible conduct: a final issue quality of writing

The pharmacological agents were prioritized and selected by the staff with respect their clinical efficacy as observed when tested on the patient population in the study.

We used the drug that are effective

20 Steps to a Research Article

How to Write and Publish an Article in 20 Easy Steps

1. Choose authors

2. Publish?

3. Write title

4. Write synopsis

5. Authors ok?

6. Determine form

7. Pick journal

8. Stock sections

9. Tables, figures

10. Outline paper

11. Write first draft

12. Revise manuscript

13. Check references

14. title, abstract

15. Preparing figures

16. Read instructions

17. Get feedback

18. Submit manuscript

19. Deal w/review

20. Check proofs

Step 1

Determine the authors

Start writing• Before all data collected• Before equipment dismantled• Before you have moved on

Step 2

Decide it is time to publish

• When you have a story

Step 3

Create a working title

Step 4

Draft an abstract

Step 5

Reevaluate the list of authors

Step 6

Determine the basic form of article

Types of scientific papers1. Research articles

- full articles

- brief communications

- short communications

2. non-research articles

- review articles

- book chapters

- letter to editors

Step 7

Select the journal

Field/academics

Impact factor

Availability

Reputation

Format

Appearance

-text

-illustration

Time to print

Changes

- page changes

- color changes

Instructions to Authors

• Length of abstracts and article• Citations in text

Other researcher have found that x

increases y. 37

other researcher have found that x

increases y (Adams et al, 1993).• Style for bibliography • Abbreviations permitted

Step 8

Stock the “section reservoirs”

Step 9

Construct tables and figures

1. Tables and figures should stand on own

2. Should be sure of result before writing

Step 10

Outline the paper1. What are the issues?

2. What will you say about them?

3. In what order?

Step 11

Write a first draft

Focus on getting your ideas onto paper• brainstorm• Don’t worry about grammar, aesthetics• Cite reference in text (REF)

“Write freely and as rapidly as possible and throw the whole thing sown on paper. Never correct or rewrite until the whole thing is down. Rewrite in process is usually found to be an excuse for not going on.”

John Steinbeck

“if you try to write and edit at the same time, you will do neither well.”

Charles H. Sides

Writer’s block• I don’t know where to begin

• I don’t know what to say

• I’m not a good writer

I don’t know where to begin

• Use your outline

• Write the easies section first

I don’t know what to say

• Find out more about the subject

I’m not a good writer

• No one’s first draft is readable

• Editing is much easier than writing

• Just do it!

Step 12

Revise the manuscript

A. Make major alterations

B. Polish the style

C. Make it attractive

Use of headings

• Reveals structure of text

• Makes it easy to find information

• Provides visual breaks

Selecting a typeface

Serif versus scan serif ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Times Roman

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Helvetica

Step 13

Check the references

Step 14

Write the final title and abstract

Step 15

Review the instructions to authors

Step 16

Prepare the final illustrations

Step 17

Get feedback on the manuscript

Step 18: Submit the manuscript

• The text• Tables and figures• Cover letter

Cover letter

• Summary

• Value to journal

Te enclosed manuscript, entitled “Providing Training in Research Ethics” by Beth A. Fischer and Michael J. Zigmond is being submitted for possible publication in Science and Engineering Ethics.

This articles details a comprehensive educational program that provides instruction in research ethics. It is adaptable to the needs of graduate students and postdoctoral fellows at a broad range of institutions. The article would be of use to individuals who are involved in providing instruction in the responsible conduct of research…

Cover letter

• Adherence to codes of ethics• Not being considered elsewhere• Reviews

- to use

- to avoid

The review process

• Editor receives, surveys manuscript• Manuscript sent to reviewers for evaluation• Reviewers provide editor with critique• Editor makes decision

Criteria for evaluation

• Relevance• Significance• Content• writing

Pet Peeves of Reviewers

• “data are” (not data is)• Starting sentences w/ a number• Inconsistent use of abbreviations• Seemingly relevant paper not cited

Step 19

Deal with the reviewers’ comments

The reply

• Accept as is• Revise• reject

Your options

• Revise: incorporate editor’s and reviewer’s suggestions

• Submit manuscript to another journal

• Appeal the decision

Cover letter for a revised manuscript

• Specify that this is a revision • Address each of the concerns raised by

reviewer’s and point out changes

Cover letter for a revised manuscript

1. Reviewer #2 felt that more detailed information

on moral reasoning should be provided.

This information has been inserted (see p. 9).

2. Reviewer #3 requested that …

We have…

Step 20

Check page proofs, order offprints

Page proofs

• Sent to corresponding author

• Must be returned within a few days

Page proofs

DO: - answer all queries

- check clarity

- correct types

- order offprints

DON’T: - make major revisions

- insert new material

PUBLISHING RESEARCH FINDINGSWhat Reviewers Look For

Basic issues: Is manuscript within scope of journal?

Does subject matter warrant publication?

- original?

- important?

Content of the paper: Title and abstract: Do they reflect the paper’s content?

Introduction:

- adequate description of problem?

- appropriate literature reviewed?

Methods/materials: Will the reader be able to reproduce the experiments?

Results:

- clearly expressed?

- results flow logically from methods?

- ethical considerations?

PUBLISHING RESEARCH FINDINGSWhat Reviewers Look For

Tables and Figures: - necessary? - intelligible without reference to the text?Discussion: - results adequately discussed? - reasonable conclusion drawn from data? - alternative hypotheses considered? - clear statement of implications of research?References: - appropriate?

Writing style: Adherence to journal’s style requirements? - length - other requirements Free of grammar, punctuation, spelling errors? intelligible to the journal’s readership?

SELECT RESOURCESWriting Research Articles

Particularly good resources are marked with an asterisk

Blake G & Bly RW. The Elements of Technical Writing. New York: Macmillian, 1993.

Boice R. How Writers Journey to comfort and Fluency: A Psychological Adventure. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1994.

Boice R. procrastination and Blocking: A novel, Practical Approach. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1996.

Boice R. Professors as Writers: A Self-Help Guide to Productive Writing. Oklahoma: New Forums Press Inc., 1990.

Booth V. Communicating in Science: Writing a Scientific Pager and Speaking at Scientific Meetings. (2nd ed.)NY: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.

A thin book filled with wisdom about writing and talking. A sort of “Elements of Style” for scientists.

SELECT RESOURCESWriting Research Articles

Particularly good resources are marked with an asterisk

Briscoe MH. Preparing Scientic Illustrations: A guide to better Posters, Presentations, and Publications. New York: Springer, 1996.

Byrne D. Publishing Your Medical Research Paper. Baltimore Maryland: Williams & Wilkins, 1998.

Cleveland WS. The Elements of Graphing Data. Murray Hill, NJ: AT & T Bell Lab., 1994

Council of Biology Editors. Ethics and Policy in Scientific Publication. Bethesda, MD: Council of Biology Editors, Inc.,1990.

Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Style and Format. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Illustrations Committee. Illustrating Science. New York: Council of Biology Editors, Inc., 1988

SELECT RESOURCESWriting Research Articles

Particularly good resources are marked with an asterisk

Day RA. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, 5th Edition . Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1998. There are a great many books on the subject; this is the best – wise and witty, takes you from creating the title to checking the galley proofs. Read it, then keep it handy.

Day RA. Scientific English : A Guide for Scientists and Other Professionals. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1992. A good extension of “How to write…” although some of the material overlaps.

Gowers E. Fowler’s Modern English Usage, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, 1984.

Hall GM. How to Write a Paper. London: BMJ Publishing, 1994.

SELECT RESOURCESWriting Research Articles

Particularly good resources are marked with an asterisk

Huth EJ. How to Write and Publish Papers in the Medical Sciences, 2nd Edition. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1990.

Kosslyn SM. Elements of Graph Design. New York: Freeman and Co, 1994. Filled with useful advice. Although not specifically written for research

presentation the majority of the information appears to be relevant. Useful side-by-side presentation to “do” and “don’t.”

Lamott A. Bird by Bird. New York: Anchor Books, 1994.

Lang TA & Secic M. How to Report Statistics In Medicine: Annotated Guidelines For Authors, Editors, and Reviewers. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians, 1997.

SELECT RESOURCESWriting Research Articles

Particularly good resources are marked with an asterisk

Morgan P. An Insider’s Guide for Medical Authors & Editors. Philadelphia: iSi Press, 1986.

Sides CH. How to Write and Present Technical Information. USA: Oryx Press, 1990.

Sternberg RJ. The Psychologist’s Companion: A Guide to Scientific Writing for Students and Researchers. USA: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

Strunk W Jr & White EB. The Elements of Style, 3rd Edition. New York: MacMillan, 1979.

A classic, easy-to-use reference on writing.

Zeiger M. Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991.

SELECT RESOURCESWriting Research Articles

Particularly good resources are marked with an asterisk

Websites

@primer (an interactive tutorial on copyright)

http://nova.umuc.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/primer/primerwrap.cgi/enter.php

IP@ the National Academies

http://ip.nationalacademies.org